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ZomO    BT    li     H.    B.MI-KY 


THH    I'KIXC'IPI.KS   OF    AiiHlCrLTURE 


E^e  HvLxai  Sricnre  Srrirs 

Edited  by  L.  H.  Bailey 

The  Soil.     King. 

The  Spraying  of  Plants.     Lodeman. 

Milk  and  its  Prodccts.    Wing.    Enlarged  and  Revised. 

The  Fertility  of  the  Land.     Boherts. 

The     Principles    of     Frdit-gkowing.      Bailey.     20th 

Edition.,  Bevised. 
Bush-fruits.     Card. 
Fertilizers.     Voorhees.     Bevised. 
The  Principles  OF  Agriculture.  Bailey.     Bevised. 
Irrigation  and  Drainage.     King. 
The  Farmstead.     BoheHs. 
RiRAL  Wealth  and  Welfare.     Fairchild. 
The  Principles  of  Vegetable-gardening.    Bailey. 
Farm  Poultry.    Watson.     Enlarged  and  Bevised. 
The  Feeding  of  Animals.     Jordan. 
The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook.     Boberts. 
The  Diseases  of  Animals.     Mayo. 
The  Horse.     Boberts. 
How  to  Choose  a  Farm.     Hunt. 
Forage  Crops.     Voorhees. 

Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life.     Lipman. 
The  Nursery-book.     Bailey. 
Plant-breeding.     Bailey  and  Gilbert.     Bevised. 
The  Forcing-book.     Bailey. 
The  Pruning-book.     Bailey. 

Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions.   Paddock  and  Wliipple. 
Rural  Hygiene.     Ogden. 
Dry-farming.     ]Vidtsoe. 
Law  for  the  American  Farmer.     Green. 
Farm  Boys  and  Girls.     3IcKeever. 
The  Training  and  Breaking  of  Horses.     Harper. 
Sheep-farming  in  North  America.      Craig. 
Cooperation  in  Agriculture.     Poioell. 
The  Farm  Woodlot.     Cheyne.y  and  Wentling. 
Household  Insects.     Herrick. 
Citrus  Fruits.     Coit. 

Principles  of  Eural  Credits.     Morman. 
Beekeeping.     Phillips. 
Subtropical  Vegetable-Gardening.     Bolfs. 


TIIK  IMiLM'lPLES  OF 
ACiUlClLTl  UE 


A    Tr.XT-BooK   lOK 

JSCUUOLS    AND     KuiiAL     SOCIETIES 


EDITED    r.Y 

L.    ir.    BAILEY 


Tucnty-fiKirtft  f-.dition 

With  a  rri'iew  and  catechism  for  Trading- 

clubs  and  teachers 


THE    MAC.MIl.l.AN     (oMI'ANY 

lX)M>ON  ;     MA«illl.l.AN    A    CO..   L/n>. 

1918 

AH  rights  rfterr^d 


Copyright,  1898,  1909 
By  L.  H.  BAILEY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped  December,  1898 
Reprinted  with  corrections  January,   1900;  January,  May,   1901 
February,  June,  1902;   February.   July,  1903;  March,  1904;  July, 
1905;    April,   1906;     August,    1907;    June,   1908;    January,   19C9, 
Revised,  June    1909;  January,    1910;  June,   1911;  January,  1912; 
January,  1913;  September,  December,  1914;  July.   191." 
January,  1917 


Agrlcuftuf^ 

Reference 

Service 


J.  Horace  McFarland  Company 
Haerisburq  •  Pennsylvania 


ACRfCT 


PKKKACE 


The  greatest  difliculty  in  tlu!  teiichin;;  of  agrieul  • 
tuiv  is  tt)  tell  what  agrieullmv  is.  To  the  seieutist, 
a;^riculturi'  has  been  larjjjely  an  api>li<';irion  of  the 
tfaehin;;s  of  ai,'ricultural  ehemistry;  to  the  stoekiiian, 
it  is  ehirfly  the  raising  of  animals  ;  to  the  hoi-ticul- 
tnrist,  it  may  l)e  frnit -growing,  tlower-growing,  or 
nursery  business  ;  and  evcry<tne,  ^in^•t'  tin-  cstaldish- 
ment  of  the  agricultural  colleges  and  experiment 
stations,  is  certain  that  it  is  a  science.  The  fact 
;s,  howcvrr.  that  agriculture  is  jmi-sucd  ptiniarily 
for  the  gaining  of  a  livrlihood,  not  for  the  exU'Usion 
of  knowledge  :  it  is,  therefore,  a  business,  not  a  sci- 
ence. But  at  every  point,  a  knowledge  of  science  aids 
the  busin«'ss.  It  is  on  the  scienee  side  that  the 
experimenter  is  able  to  help  the  fanner.  On  the 
business  side  the  farmer  must  rely  upon  himself  ;  for 
the  person  who  is  not  a  good  business  man  cannot 
be  a  giMtd  fanner,  however  rnueh  he  may  know  of 
science.  These  statements  an-  no  (lisparagen)ent  of 
seieuce.  for,  in  these  days,  facts  of  science  and  scieu- 
titic  habits  of  thought  are  essential  to  the  best 
farming,     but     they    are    intended     to    emphasize    the 

(V) 


vi  PREFACE 

tact    that    business   method    is   the   master,   and   that 
teachings  of  science  are  the  helpmates. 

But  even  if  these  facts  are  fullj'  apprehended, 
the  teacher  and  the  farmer  are  apt  to  make  no 
distinction  between  the  fundamental  and  the  inci- 
dental applications  of  science,  or  between  principles 
and  facts.  Therefore,  the  mistake  is  often  made  of 
teaching  how  to  overcome  mere  obstacles  before  ex- 
plaining why  the  obstacles  are  obstacles.  How  to 
kill  weeds  is  a  mere  incident ;  the  great  fact  is  that 
good  farmers  are  not  troubled  with  weeds.  Rather 
than  to  know  kinds  of  weeds,  the  farmer  should 
know  how  to  manage  his  land.  How  to  know  the 
weeds  and  how  to  kill  them  is  what  he  calls  prac- 
tical knowledge,  but,  standing  alone,  it  is  really  the 
most  unpractical  kind  of  knowledge,  for  it  does  not 
tell  him  how  to  prevent  their  recurrence  year  after 
year.  The  learner  is  apt  to  begin  at  the  wrong 
end  of  his  problem.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
customary  discussions  of  under- drainage.  The  pupil 
or  the  reader  is  first  instructed  in  methods  of  lay- 
ing drains.  But  drainage  is  not  the  unit.  The 
real  unit  is  texture  and  moisture  of  soils :  plowing, 
draining,  green -cropping  are  means  of  producing  a 
given  or  desired  result.  The  real  subject  matter  for 
first  consideration,  therefore,  is  amelioration  of  soil 
rather  than   laying  of  drains.     When  the  farmer  has 


PRKFACE  Vll 

learned  huw  lo  jtivparo  tlu>  laiul,  and  how  to  pfrow 
plants,  and  how  to  raise  animals,  then  he  may 
enquire  about  sueh  incidental  details  as  the  kinds 
of  weeds  and  insects,  tiie  lirands  of  fertilizers,  the 
varieties  of  apples,  when  he  shall  till,  whether  he 
siiall  raise  wheat  or  sweet  eorn.  The  tailor  first 
learns  how  to  lay  out  his  {jfannent  ;  but  the  farmer 
too  often  wants  to  sew  on  the  buttons  before  he 
cuts    his    cloth. 

Again,  the  purpose  of  education  is  often  misun- 
derstood by  both  teachers  and  farmers.  Its  purpose 
is  to  improve  the  farmer,  not  the  farm.  If  the  per- 
son is  aroused,  the  farm  is  likely  to  be  awakened. 
The  happy  farmer  is  a  more  successful  farmer  than 
the  rich  one.  If  the  educated  farmer  raises  no 
more  wheat  or  cotton  than  the  uneducated  neighbor, 
his  education  is  nevertheless  worth  the  co.st,  for  his 
mind  is  open  to  a  thousand  influences  of  which  the 
other  knows  nothing.  One's  happiness  depends  less 
on   bushels  of   <"orn   than   on   entertaining   thoughts. 

Not  only  do  we  need  to  know  what  agriculture 
is,  but  we  should  know  the  nlativ**  importance  of 
its  parts.  It  is  eomm«»nly  assumed  that  fertilizing 
the  land  is  the  one  most  fundamental  thing  in 
agriculture,  but  this  is  not  so ;  for  if  but  one  thing 
about  farming  practices  were  to  be  explained,  that 
thing  should    be    the    tilling    of    the    laud. 


Vlll  PREFACE 

Agriculture,  then,  stands  upon  business,  but 
science  is  the  staff.  Business  cannot  be  taught  in 
a  book  like  this ;  but  some  of  the  laws  of  science 
as  applied  to  farm -management  can  be  taught,  and 
it  is  convenient  to  speak  of  these  laws  as  the 
principles  of  agriculture.  These  principles  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  more  or  less  logical  order,  so  that  the 
teacher  may  have  the  skeleton  of  the  subject  before 
him.  The  subject  should  not  be  taught  until  it  is 
analyzed,  for  analysis  supplies  the  thread  upon  which 
the  facts  and  practices  may  be  strung.  The  best 
part  of  the  book,  therefore,  is  the  table  of  contents. 

A  book  like  this  should  be  used  only  by  persons 
who  know  how  to  observe.  The  starting-point  in 
the  teaching  of  agriculture  is  nature -study, —  the 
training  of  the  power  actually  to  see  things  and 
then  to  draw  proper  conclusions  from  them.  Into 
this  primary  field  the  author  hopes  to  enter ;  but 
the  present  need  seems  to  be  for  a  book  of  prin- 
ciples designed '  to '  aid  those  who  know  how  to  use 
their   eyes. 

L.    H.    BAILEY. 

HORTICUTURAL    DEPARTMENT, 

Cornelij  University,  Dee.  1,  1898. 


ANAr.VSTS 

INTKODUCTIUN    ^  pages  1-15) 

Paraaraphs 

1.      fFhat  Atjruulture  Is 1-9 

ii.     rite  I'ersnnnl  Fuctnrs  upon  tchich  its  Success  Drptmls — 

2«.    Upon  business  or  t-Xfoutive  ability  10-12 

2/i.    Upon  a  knowlcdpe  of  naturnl  soienof  .  13-21 

3.    Its  Fuld  of  PrfxiurtioH  22 

Paut    I 

THK     SOIL 

CHAI'TKIt    1 

The   Contents   ok   tiik   Sou.  ( j>nR08  l«>-:<r>) 

1.  fFhat  the  Soil  J s  23,24 

2.  Hinc  Soil  is  Made  — 

2<i.    Tbe  inorganic  elemenU  .  25-28 

26.    Tbe  organic  elements  an«l  agent-  ,  2l»-35 

Je.    Triins|>ortation  of  pmIIh    .    .  3G— 10 

3.  I'll,-  Rejiourres  of  the  Soil  11-48 

PHAPTKU    M 
The  Texti-re  ani»  Stri'cti  kk  ok  the  Son,  ( pages  37-46) 

1  H'hat  14  Meant  by   Trrture   .        .  4l»-51 

2.  H'Hy   Gthtii  Trsture  ami  Slructurr  n,,    l,„f»!i  .  52,63 

3.  //oif  Otmd  Structure  /.»  Obtai>\-  .  54-59 

4.  structure  nnii  MaHurea t^- 

rix) 


X  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER    III 

The   Moisture  in  thk    Sofl  (pages  47-63) 
(By  L.  A.  Clinton,  Director,  Storrs  Experiment  Station,  Conn.) 

Paragraphs 

1.  Why  Moisture  Is  Important 61  63 

2.  How   Water  is  Held  in  the  Soil 64-69 

3.  Hoiv  the  Moisture-holding  Capacity   of  the  Soil  May  he 

Increased  — 

3a.    The  capacity  of  the  soil 70-72 

3&.    Capacity  is  increased  by  the  addition  of  humus  .  73,  74 

3c.    Capacity  may  be  increased  by  under- drainage    .  75-78 

3f?.    The  capacity  is  increased  by  proper  tillage    .    .  79-81 

4.  The  Conservation  of  Moisture 82,83 

CHAPTER   IV 

The    Tillage  op  the   Soil  (pages  64-76) 

1.  What  Tillage  Is 84  86 

2.  What  Tillage  Does 87-89 

3.  How  Tillage  Is  Performed  — 

3a.    By  deep-working  tools 90-97 

3&.    By  surface-working  tools 98-101 

3c.    By  compacting  tools 102-104 

CHAPTER    V 

Enriching   the    Soil  —  Farm    Resources  (pages  77-86) 

1.  Wliat  Farm  Resources  Are 105-107 

2.  Cropping  Resources  — 

2a.    The  kinds  of    green-manures 108-111 

21).    The  management  of    green-manures 112-1.7 

8.    Direct  Applications — 

3a.    Stable  manures 118-122 

3b.    Other  dressings 123-126 


ANALYSIS  XI 

CHAPTKK    VI 
Enrichino  the  Soil  —  Commkkcial  Kesources 

l|»ll;C«S   ST-IO")) 

(By  G.  W.  Cavanai'iih,  Pr<)ff»«or  of  Agrlrulttirnl  Chomlsty.  Cornell 
Unlver»iiy " 

I'araoraiihs 

1.  The  J^lemrnt,-    tn    ^•.-    >  ■•'  .  r_>7-l33 

•J.  yitrm/ni  .  l.J4-iaU 

3.  Phosphoric  Jrui  .  .  HO-U") 

4.  I'ottish I4(;-14S 

5.  Amcutlments .  14y-l."i:( 

6.  Commercial  Fertilisers  — 

G'l.    What  tlit-y  nrc  ....  154-l.'i7 

6h.    Ailvioo  ns  to  tlu  ir  u>m    .  l.").^-l()ti 


I'AHT     II 

Till-:    IM.ANT.    .\XI)    CK'cU'S 

CH.MTKIC    VII 
The   Okfuks   ok   thk    I'i..\nt  {i>a;^t«s  loij-in) 

).  The  riitnt  and  the  Crop  .... 

2.  The  J'liint  in  iln  Relation   to  Soil  . 

3.  ne  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Climate   .    .    . 

4.  The  P'lint  in  its  Relation  to  Animal   I.ii'f 

5.  The  plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man  -  - 

fta.    \9  ArticIi'S  of    food  or  bpvfrn^'<' 

K>b.    As  artii'Ica  UHi-tl  in  the  arts- 

Sr.    As  arti<'lc!«  or  objtM't.t  to  gnitify  H'stli.tic  tasifH   . 


<'FIAI'TI;U    VIII 

Wovt    THE    IM.ANT    Ijvks  (pages  ll:.'-131) 

iBy  B    M    Dcoo»M.  Profwunr  .  f  I'l  mt  l'h\  .i.i..-v.  Cornrll  rnlrpi^lly) 

I      The  plant  AetirtUe*  .    .    .  is.'.  183 


107, 

1G8 

l(il» 

171 

17-'. 

173 

174. 

17,-) 

170, 

177 

178 

17JV1SI 

Xll  ANALYSIS 

2.  TJie  Factors  of    Groicth —  Paragraphs 

2a.    Water  in  the  plant 184-189 

2h.    Soluble  salts  from  the  soil 190-192 

2c,    Oxygen 193-19ff 

2d.    Carbon  dioxid  and  sunlight 19?  199 

2e.    Heat,  or  a  definite  temperature 200-202 

3.  The  Processes  of  Growth 203-207 

4.  IrritaUUty 208-212 

CHAPTER    IX 

The    Propagation   op    Plants  (pages  132-144) 

1.  The  Kinds  of  Fropac/atioii 213-215 

2.  Seedage,  or  Propagation  by  Seeds  — 

2a.    Requisites  of   germination 216-221 

2b.   The  raising  of   seedlings 222-226 

3.  Propagation  by  Budu  — 

3a.    Why  and    how  bud  propagation  is  uficd  ....  227,  228 

36.    Undetaehed  buds 229,  230 

Zc.    Detached  buds 231-241 

CHAPTER    X 

Preparation    of    Land  for   the    Seed  (pages  145-158) 

(By  I.  P.  Roberts,  Emeritus  Professor  of  Agriculture, 
Cornell  University) 

1,  Factors  Which  Determine  the  Preparation  of  the  Seed-bed.  242,  243 

2.  The  Demands  of  the  Plant 244-249 

3.  The  Preparing  of  the  Seed-bed 250  255 

4,  Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principles  — 

4a.    Wheat 256-259 

4b.    Maize,  or  Indian  corn 260,  261 

4c.    Potatoes 262-264 

CHAPTER   XI 

Subsequent   Care  of  the    Plant  (pages  159-178) 

i.    By  Means  of  Tillage  — 

la.    In  general 265-270 

16.    In  fruit  plantations 271-277 


ANALYSIS  Xni 

2.  B}f  Menus  of  FruHiug  aini  Traintny —  Paraorapht 

2a.    Pruning  vs.  trniiiinf;  278,  271* 

2ft.    Tbe  healing  of  wounds  280-284 

2c.    Tbe  principles  of  pruning'  28r>-28y 

3.  By  Keeping  Eiifmies  in   Check  — 

3a.    The  kinds  of  enouiios  290-29.3 

3/>.    Tlie  preventives  and  remedies  294-;}03 

CHAITKK    XII 

Pasti'REs,   Meadows,  ash  Fokauk  (pH>fer.  179-200) 

(By  I.  I".  Roberts) 

1.  Gra."^                                   :i(i4-:UM) 

2.  Prrtiinix  )>t   fnstttrts  — 

2*1.     rrcpnratiou  of  the  land  ;j07-;illt 

2ft.    Maintaining  the  pasture  311    317 

3.  Afeaitntcs  — 

3<J.    Temporary  meadows  318-321 

3ft.     Peruianeut  meadows  322-325 

3c.    Kinds  of  grasst-s  for  meadow.s  .  32(5-329 

4.  Otiirr  Forage  Plan  Is  330-335 

Part     1 1 1 
THE    .\\TM.\L.    .\.\I)    STOCK 

rilAPTKK    Mil 

The   Offices  nr  tiik    ,\\rM\i.  1 1, :.,'....    'ni    'tiTi 

1.  Thr  Jmmal  and  the  Stitck   .  336,337 

2.  77<f  .tntmal  in  II'^  UchiUon   (o  lite  .s.m/  338,339 

3.  The  Animal   in  Jli   Relation  to  the  Ci«i>  340,341 

4.  rtie  Annual  h(t.i  Intnnsic   Falue   to  Man 

4a.    As  articles  of  food  342-344 

46.    As  articles  used  in  the  art-  345,  34ii 

4«.    As  companions  347 

5.  The  Animal  a*  a  Iteaat  of  Jitinlm  348-350 
fi.  The  Antmal  as  a  Pest-dentmi/rr  351,352 
7.     T)t^  Animal   Ihri-rmfle.t   F^ibor  3.53,  .354 


XIV  ANALYSIS 

CHAPTER    XIV 

How   THE   Animal   Lives  (pages  208-238) 

(By  James  Law,  Ex-Director  of  the  New  York  State  Veterinary  College, 
Coruell  University) 

1.  The  Cell,  and  its  Part  in  the  Vital  Processes —  Paragraphs 

la.    The  cell 355 

16.    Single-celled  animals 356-359 

Ic.    Many-celled  animals 360-366 

2.  Tlie  Food  of  Animals  — 

2a.    Kind  of  food 367,368 

26.    Food  constituents 369-376 

3.  Digestion  of  Food  — 

3a.    What  digestion  is 377,  378 

36.    The  saliva 379-385 

3c.    The  gastric  juice 386-393 

M.    Intestinal  digestion 394-401 

4.  Absorption  of  the  Digested  Matters  — 

4«.    How  absorption  takes  place 402-404 

46.    Destination  of  the  rich  blood  from  the  intestines.  405-409 

0.  Respiration,  or  Breathing  — 

5a.    "What  breathing  is 410-413 

56.    Blood-changes  in  respiration 414-418 

5c.    Amount  of  air  required 419-421 

6.     Work;    Waste;  Rest— 

6a.    Waste  of  tissue 422  423 

66.    Applications  to  practice 424-426 

CHAPTER   XV 

The   Feeding  of   the   Animal  (pages  239-257) 

(By  H.  H.  Wing,  Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  in 
Cornell  University) 

1.  Sources  of  Food  of  Animals 427,428 

2.  Hoio  the  Animal  Uses  Food 429-43.*) 


ANALYSIS  XV 

8.     Compnsitinn  of   Foddrrs —  Paragraphs 

3(1.  Classifu-ntion      4:J6 

36.  Watt-r 4:{7-4a9 

3c.  Ash 440, 441 

3</.  Albmuinoids  44'J  444 

3«-.  Carbohvhratfs  44.")  447 

3/.  Fat«  .   '. 4JS.449 

4.    Feedinij — 

4a.  Nutritive  ratio 450  457 

4b.  Quantity  of  food  required  458-463 

4c.  Fooding  Htandarda   .    .  404,465 

4</.  Bulk  in  the  ration  4Gr)-4r8 

4t>.  Paiatal.loness     .  469,470 

4/.  Cooking  and  preparing  tho  food 471  473 

CHAITKK    XVI 
The    Management   ok   Stock  (page  258-278) 

(P-y  I.  1'.  H<>iir.RT8) 

1.  Thf  lireeding  of  Stock  — 

\ii.    What  J9  meant  by  breeding  •  474-477 

Ib^   The  mental  ideal 478-*81 

\c.    How  to  attain  tho  i.l.al  482  487 

2.  triicre  Stnck-raisiiifi  I'' .IdnstiUc  .  488  491 

3.  How  Much  Stock  Minj  bf  Kept  492-500 

4.  Tlte  Care  of   Stock  — 

4/1.  Hou)<ing     .  ."soi-non 

4b.    Wntrr  506,507 

4c     Food  508-5)0 

(JLOSSAKV  U»»K'*«  281-288) 

SUGGESTIONS   To  HKADINO  CLUBS  AND  To  TKACHERS 
(pHg.«  2S9-323) 

INDEX  (pages  325-336) 


rilK    IMv'lNCIPl.KS   OK    AdKiCL'LTLKE 


INTKUDLCTlUN 
1.    What   Af/rirHlfurr   fs 

1.  Agriculture,  or  fanning,  is  th«'  l>usiness  <»t' 
raising  products  from  tlic  land.  These  products 
are  of  two  classes  :  crops,  or  plants  and  their 
products  ;  stock.  «>r  animals  and  theii-  ]>roducts. 
The  former  are  direct  i)ro(hicts  of  the  land  ;  tlit- 
latter  are  indirect  proihicts  of   the  land, 

2.  Agriculture  also  comprises,  to  a  certain 
♦'Xtent,  the  marketing  or  selling  of  its  products. 
As  niarketable  commo<lities,  the  jtroducts  are  of 
two  classes  :  primary,  or  those  which  are  put  on 
the  market  iu  their  native  or  natural  condition, 
as  wheat,  potatoes,  bananas,  eggs,  milk,  wool; 
•secondary,  or  those  which  are  put  on  the  market 
ua  a  manufactured  condition,  as  butter,  cheese, 
cider,  evaporatetl   fruits. 

3.  The  chief  contribution  of  agriculture  tn 
the  wealth  and  welfare  of  the  world  is  the  pro- 
duction of  foo(i.  Its  second  contribution  is  the 
production  of   materials   for  dotliing.      Its   third 

A  (1) 


2  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

is  the  production  of  wood  or  timber,  used 
in  building  and  in  the  various  wood -working 
trades.  Other  contributions  are  the  production 
of  materials  used  in  medicine  and  in  various 
secondary  and  incidental  arts  and  manufactures. 

4.  The  ideal  agriculture  maintains  itself. 
That  is,  it  is  able  to  thrive  forever  on  the  same 
land  and  from  its  own  resources.  Tiie  land 
becomes  more  productive  with  time,  and  this 
even  without  the  aid  of  fertilizing  materials 
from  the  outside.  This  state  is  possible  only 
with  a  mixed  husbandry,  in  which  rotations  of 
crops  and  the  raising  of  animals  are  necessary 
features.  The  more  specialized  any  agricultural 
industry  becomes,  the  more  must  it  depend  upon 
outside  and  artificial  aids  for  the  enrichment  of 
the  land  and   for  its  continued   support. 

5.  Agriculture  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
four  general  branches  or  departments  :  agricul- 
ture in  its  restricted  sense,  animal  industry,  for- 
estry, horticulture. 

6.  Agriculture  in  its  restricted  sense  —  some- 
times, but  erroneously,  called  agriculture  proper — 
is  a  term  applied  to  the  general  management 
of  lands  and  farms,  and  to  the  growing  of  the 
staple  grain  and  fiber  crops.  In  North  America, 
the  use  of  the  term  agriculture  has  been  restricted 
to  the  above  application  largely  through  the  in- 
fluence   of   agricultural   colleges    and    experiment 


INTRODUCTION  d 

stations,  ill  wliich  the  general  licM  of  ap:riculture 
has  been  tlividcd  into  various  si)ecial  subjects. 

7.  Animal  industry  is  tlie  raising  of  animals, 
either  for  direct  sale  or  use  or  for  their  pro- 
«lucts.  It  is  customary  to  sjx'ak  of  it  as  com- 
prising  three  deiiartmcnts:  stock-rai-^ing,  or  the 
general  growing  of  mammals,  as  cattle,  horses, 
sheep;  «laii'y  husbandry,  ov  the  production  of 
milk  and  milk  products;  poultry- raising,  or  tlie 
growing  of  fowls,  as  chickens,  turkeys,  geese, 
chicks.  In  its  largest  sense,  it  comprises  other  de- 
partments, as  apiculture  or  bee-raising,  fish-cul- 
ture, ostreaculture  or  oyster- raising,  and  the  like, 

8.  Forestry  is  the  growing  of  timber  and 
wootls.  Its  objects  are  two :  to  obtain  a  sala- 
ble product ;  to  produce  some  secondary  effect 
upon  the  region,  as  the  modification  of  climate 
or  the  i»rescrvation  of  the  water-supply  to  rivers 
and  lakes. 

0.  Horticulture  is  the  growing  of  fruits, 
kitchen  -  garden  vegetables,  and  ornamental 
plants.  It  lias  been  divided  into  four  <lepart- 
raents  :  pomolog}',  or  fruit-growing  ;  olericul- 
ture, or  vegetal)!*' -gardening  ;  fioiiculture,  or 
the  growing  of  fiowers  and  plants  for  their  own 
or  individual  uses  as  moans  of  ornament;  land- 
scape horticulture,  or  the  growing  and  ])'anting 
of  ornamental  plants  for  their  uses  in  mass 
etTects    in    the    landscape    (ou    the    lawn). 


4  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

2.    The   Personal    Factors    Upon   Which    Its 
Success  Depends 

2a.     Upon    business    or    executive    ability 

10.  Since  the  farmer  makes  a  living  by 
means  of  trade,  it  follows  that  ability  to  man- 
age business  and  affairs  is  requisite  to  his  suc- 
cess. Executive  ability  is  as  needful  to  him  as 
to  the  merchant  or  the  manufacturer  ;  and  the 
lack  of  such  ability  is  probably  the  commonest 
and  most  serious  fault  with  our  agriculture.  As 
the  conditions  of  ti'ade  are  ever  changing,  so  the 
methods  of  the  farmer  must  be  amenable  to 
modification.  He  must  quickly  and  completely 
adapt  himself  to  the  commerce  of  the  time. 
Manifestly,  however,  this  business  capability 
cannot  be  taught  by  books.  It  is  a  matter  of 
temperament,  home  training,  and  opportunity. 
Like  all  permanent  success,  business  prosperity 
depends  upon  correct  thinking,  and  then  upon 
the  correct  application  of  the  thinking.  Suc- 
cessful agriculture,  therefore,  is  a  matter  of 
personality   more    than    of    circumstances. 

11.  The  compound  result  of  executive  ability 
and  experience  may  be  expressed  in  the  term 
farm  -  practice.  It  is  the  judgment  of  the 
farmer  upon  the  question  in  hand.  However 
much    he    may    learn    from    science,    his    own 


INTRODUCTION  0 

experience  on  his  own  farm  must  toll  hiin  what 
crops  to  jz:row,  how  to  f»M-tilizo  his  hind,  what 
breeds  and  varieties  to  raise,  when  and  how  to 
sow  and  to  reap.  The  experience  of  one  farmer 
is  invaluable  to  another,  but  each  farm  is 
iit'vertheloss  a  separate  and  local  problem,  which 
the  farmer  nuist  think  out  and  work  out  for 
himself. 

V2.  The  farmer  must  bo  able  not  only  t<> 
rais(»  his  i>roducts,  but  also  to  sell  them.  He 
nnist  protluce  either  what  the  trade  deman<ls, 
or  be  able  to  sell  products  which  are  ii<>t  known 
in  the  general  market.  In  other  woids,  thcif 
are  two  types  of  (Mniunercial  elTort  in  farminjj: : 
growing  the  staple  i)roducts  for  the  world's 
markets  (as  wheat,  beans,  maize,  meat),  in 
which  case  the  market  dictates  the  price  ;  grow- 
ing special  products  for  parti<'ular  or  personal  sale 
(as  the  products  of  superior  excellence,  and 
luxuries),  in  which  case  the  producer  -looks  for 
his   customei's   and    dictates    the    }>rii'e, 

2h.     I'pon    >t    knotrledije    of  iinturnl    srifuce 

1.1.  The  farmer,  however,  inis  more  prctblems 
to  deal  witli  than  those  connected  with  trad-'. 
He  must  raise  pnnhu'ts :  and  such  production 
depends  Upon  the  exercise  of  much  Sj>ecial 
knowledge   and   skill.    The   most  successful   pro- 


6  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

duction  of  agricultural  products  rests  upon 
the  application  of  many  principles  and  facts  of 
natural  science ;  and  the  importance  of  such 
application  is  rapidly  increasing,  with  the  com- 
petitions and  complexities  of  civilization.  The 
study  of  these  natural  sciences  also  establishes 
habits  of  correct  thinking,  and  opens  the  mind 
to  a  larger  enjoyment  of  life, —  for  happiness, 
like  success,  depends  upon  habits  of  thought. 
The  farmer  should  live  for  himself,  as  well  as 
for  his  crops.  The  sciences  upon  the  knowledge 
of  which  the  best  agricultural  jDractice  chiefly 
depends  may  now  be  mentioned,  being  stated 
approximately  in  the  order  of  their  importance 
to  the  actual  practice  of  the  modern  farmer. 

14.  Physics.  The  physical  properties  and 
actions  of  bodies  are  fundamentally  concerned 
in  every  agricultural  result,  whether  the  farmer 
knows  it  or  not.  The  influences  of  light  and 
heat,  the  movements  of  fluids  in  soil,  plant  and 
animal,  the  fbrces  concerned  in  every  machine 
and  appliance,  are  some  of  the  most  obvious  of 
these  physical  problems.  So  important  to  the 
farmer  is  a  knowledge  of  physics  that  "agricul- 
tural physics"  is  now  a  subject  of  instruction 
in  colleges.  The  most  important  direct  applica- 
tion of  a  knowledge  of  physics  to  agricultural 
practice  has  come  as  a  result  of  recent  studies 
of  the  soil.     The  questions  of  soil  moisture,  soil 


INTHoDltTlON  ( 

te.\tur»»,  tlio  tilling  of  laml,  niitl  the  aecelerutiou 
of  (•lu'inii-al  activities  in  tlic  soil,  are  esstMitially 
tiuestions  of  jihysics;  and  tln'so  are  the  kinds 
of  sc'iontifu*  i)roljK'nis  which  the  farmer  needs 
lir.st    tt^    ai)i)rehen<l. 

1.").  Mechanics.  In  practice,  mechanics  is  an 
jipplication  of  the  laws  of  physics.  The  ele- 
mentary jM-iiieiples  of  mechanics  me  ajijirehended 
hy  the  farmer  unc<^ns«'ionsly,  as  a  result  of 
exi)erience  ;  hut  since  niodi-rn  agriculture  is 
impossible  without  numerous  and  often  elaborate 
mechanic'd  devices,  it  follows  that  it  is  not 
•  •nough  that  the  farmer  be  self-taught.  At  every 
tiu-n  the  farmer  uses  or  applies  physical  forces, 
in  too|>,  vrliicles,  and  machines.  His  work 
often  takt'S  him  into  the  held  of  civil  en- 
gineering. To  show  how  much  th<^  farnu>r 
is  dependent  on  j>ractical  mechanics,  Wf  need 
mention  only  imjdements  of  tillage,  problems 
associated  with  the  diaughts  of  liorse  tools, 
the  elaboratr'  harvesting  machinery,  threshers 
and  feed-mills  and  milk-working  machinery  and 
the  power  to  run  tiiem,  fruit  evaporating  ma- 
chinery, pumps,  windmills,  hydrauli**  rams,  con- 
strui'tion  of  water  supplies,  problems  of  animal 
locomotion, 

1(».  Plant-knowl»'«lge,  or  botany.  Sint-t-  the 
I 'hint  is  the  rTisnary  product  of  the  farm,  a 
knowledge  ot   it3  characteristics  and   kinds  is  of 


8  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURB 

fundamental  importance  to  the  farmer.  From 
the  farmer's  standpoint,  there  are  four  great 
departments  of  plant -knowledge  :  physiology,  or 
a  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  the  plant  lives, 
grows,  and  multiplies  ;  pathologj^  or  a  knowl- 
edge of  mal- nutrition  and  diseases  ;  systematic 
botany,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  kinds  of  plants  ; 
ecology,  or  a  knowledge  of  the  inter-relations 
between  plants  and  their  environments  (or  sur- 
roundings), and  how  they  are  modified  by 
changes  in  environments,  by  crossing,  and  by 
breeding. 

17.  Animal-knowledge,  or  zoology.  There  are 
also  four  general  directions  in  which  animal- 
knowledge  appeals  to  the  farmer ;  physiology, 
with  its  practical  applications  of  feeding,  hous- 
ing, and  general  care  of  animals  ;  pathology,  or 
knowledge  of  mal -nutrition  and  diseases  (with 
special  applications  in  the  practice  of  surgery 
and  medicine) ;  kinds  of  animals,  and  the  life- 
histories  of  those  which  are  particularly  bene- 
ficial or  injurious  to  agriculture  (with  special 
applications  in  economic  entomology  and  eco- 
nomic  ornithology) ;    ecology  and    breeding. 

18.  Chemistry.  There  are  two  general  direc- 
tions in  which  chemistry  appeals  to  the  agn- 
culturist :  in  enlarging  his  knowledge  of  the 
life-processes  of  plants  and  animals ;  and  in 
affording  direct  information   of    the   composition 


INTROnrCTION  9 

of  many  materials  used  or  produced  on  the 
farm.  In  jiractic*',  chomistry  aids  the  farmer 
'•liit'dy  in  su,iri;''sting  how  ho  may  focd  phint-^ 
fertilize  the  land)  and  animals.  So  many  and 
important  are  the  aids  which  chemistry  extends 
i«>  aiirrieulture,  that  the  various  sul)jects  involved 
have  heen  associated  under  the  name  of  "agri- 
cultural chemistry."  This  differs  from  other 
cliemistry  not  in  kin<l,  hut  only  in  the  suhjects 
whieh    it    considers. 

19.  Climatology'.  Climate  determines  to  a 
large  extent  the  particular  treatment  <^r  caie 
which  the  farmer  gives  his  crops  and  stock.  It 
also  profoundly  inlluences  jtlants  and  animals. 
Tliry  change  when  climate  changes,  or  when 
they  are  taken  to  otlu?r  climates.  Climate  is 
therefore  a  ])owerful  agency  in  ])ro<lucing  new 
hreeds  and  new  varieties.  The  science  of 
weather,  or  meteorology,  is  also  intimately 
associate<l    with    the    work    of    the    farmer. 

"JO.  Ot'ology.  The  agricultural  possihilities  of 
any  region  are  intimately  associated  with  it> 
surface  geolog}',  or  the  way  in  which  the  soil 
was  formed.  A  knowledge  of  the  geology  of 
his  region  may  not  greatly  aid  the  farmer  in 
tile  prosecution  of  his  business,  hut  it  should 
adtl    nuich    interest    an<l    /.est    to    his    life. 

-1.  We  now  api)rehend  that  agriculture  is  a 
complicated     and     diflicult     husincss.       Founded 


10  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

upon  trade,  and  profoundly  influenced  by  every 
commercial  and  economic  condition,  its  suc- 
cessful prosecution  nevertheless  depends  npou 
an  intimate  and  even  expert  knowledge  of 
many  natural  sciences.  Aside  from  all  this, 
the  farmer  has  to  deal  with  great  numbers  of 
objects  or  facts:  thousands  of  species  of  plants 
are  cultivated,  and  many  of  these  species  have 
hundreds  and  thousands  of  varieties ;  many 
species  of  animals  are  domesticated,  and  each 
species  has  distinct  breeds.  Each  of  these  sep- 
arate facts  demands  specific  treatment.  More- 
over, the  conditions  under  which  the  farmer 
works  are  ever  changing :  his  innumerable  prob- 
lems are  endlessly  varied  and  complicated  by 
climate,  seasons,  vagaries  of  weather,  attacks  of 
pests  and  diseases,  fluctuations  in  labor  supply, 
and  many  other  unpredictable  factors. 

3.     Its  Field  of  Production 

22.  In  the  production  of  its  wealth,  agricul- 
ture operates  in  three  great  fields, — with  the 
soil,  the  plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aided 
at  every  point  by  knowledge  of  other  subjects, 
its  final  success  rests  upon  these  bases;  and 
these  are  the  fields,  therefore,  to  which  a  text- 
book may  give  most  profitable  attention. 


INTKohir-rinN  H 

sf'iiGfjsT/oys  o.y  tiik  yoHEaoi ya  j'.ih'Aon.u'i/s 

1(1.  Tho  word  n;^iculture  is  a  compouml  of  tlio  Latin  aijri, 
"fioitl."  and  oii/Mini,  "tilling."  Fanning  and  hnsbandiy  are 
aynonyiuons  with  it,  whon  usvd  in  thoir  broadest  stMiso;  but  tln're 
is  a  ti-ndenoy  to  rt'striot  theso  two  words  to  tin-  iiuniediato  prao- 
tico,  or  practical  sido,  of  agriculture. 

'J  I.  It  is  often  difHcult  to  draw  n  line  of  deinarkation  between 
ngrifultiiro  and  manufacture.  The  husbandmen  ia  often  both 
farmer  and  nianufaeturer.  Manufaetnring  which  is  done  on  tho 
farm,  and  is  of  secondary  importance  to  the  raising  of  crops  or 
stock,  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  agriculture.  Tho  manipulation 
or  manufa<'turing  of  some  agricultural  products  requires  such 
special  skill  and  appliances  that  it  beeom«s  a  business  by  itself, 
and  is  then  manufacture  j>roper.  Thus,  the  making  of  flour  is 
no  longer  thought  of  as  agriculture;  and  tho  making  of  wine, 
jellies,  cheese,  butter,  canned  fruits,  ami  the  like,  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  the  category  of  special  manufacturing  industries. 
Strictly  speaking,  agriculture  stops  at  the  factory  door. 

3<i.  Agriculture  is  often  said  to  be  the  most  fundamental  and 
aseful  of  occupations,  since  it  feeds  the  world.  Theoretically, 
this  may  be  true;  but  n  high  state  of  civilization  is  possible  only 
with  diversification  of  interests.  As  civilization  advances,  there- 
fon<,  other  occupations  rise  in  relative  inn»ortance,  the  one  de- 
pending upon  the  other.  In  our  modern  life,  agriculture  is 
i;i;p —  !.Ie  %Tithout  the  highly  developed  manufacturing  and  trans- 
port it  mtial  trades.  Broadly  speaking,  civilization  may  be  said  to 
rest  upon  agri?ultur<*,  transportation,  and  manufacture. 

4ft.  Mixed  husbandry  is  a  tenn  used  to  denote  the  growing  of 
m  general  variety  of  form  crops  and  stock,  especially  the  growing 
of  grass,  gr.tin,  with  gnizing  (pasturing)  ami  general  stock-rais- 
ing. It  is  used  in  distinction  to  specialty-farming  or  the  raising 
of  particular   or  special   things,  as  fruit,  bees,  vegetables,   beef, 

eggs- 

4/».  Self- perpetuating  industries  conduce  to  stability  of 
political  and  so<*ial  institutions.  ''The  epochs  which  prectnle 
the  agricultural   ocrupation   of  n  country  are  commonly  aliout  as 


12  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGEICULTUKE 

follows:  Discovery,  exploration,  hunting,  speculation,  lumber- 
ing OT  mining.  The  real  and  permanent  prosperity  of  a 
country  begins  when  the  agriculture  has  evolved  so  far  as 
to  be  self-sustaining  and  to  leave  the  soil  in  constantly  better 
condition  for  the  growing  of  plants.  Lumbering  and  mining 
are  simply  means  of  utilizing  a  reserve  which  nature  has  laid 
by,  and  these  industries  are,  therefore,  self  limited,  and  are 
constantly  moving  on  into  unrobbed  territory.  Agriculture, 
when  at  its  best,  remains  forever  in  the  same  place,  and  gains 
in  riches  with  the  years;  but  in  this  country  it  has  so  far  been 
mostly  a  species  of  mining  for  plant-food,  and  then  a  rushing 
on  for  virgin  lands." — Principles  of  Fruit -Growing,  26. 

8a.  Forestry  is  popularly  misunderstood  in  this  country. 
The  forest  is  to  be  considered  as  a  ci'op.  The  salable  product 
begins  to  be  obtainable  in  a  few  years,  in  the  shape  of  trim- 
mings and  thinnings,  which  are  useful  in  manufacture  and  foi' 
fuel ;  where.as,  the  common  notion  is  that  the  forest  gives  no 
return  until  the  trees  are  old  enough  to  cut  for  timber.  One 
reason  for  this  erroneous  impression  is  the  fact  that  wood  has 
been  so  abundant  and  cheap  in  North  America  that  the  smaller 
products  have  not  been  considered  to  be  worth  the  saving;  but 
even  now,  in  the  manufacture  of  various  articles  of  commerce, 
the  trimmings  and  thinnings  of  forests  should  pay  an  income 
on  the  investment  in  some  parts  of  the  country.  If  a  manipu- 
lated forest  is  a  crop,  then  forestry  is  a  kind  of  agriculture,  and 
it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the  mere  botany  of  forest 
trees,  as  is  commonly  done. 

9a.  The  word  hoi'ticulture  is  made  up  of  the  Latin  fiortus, 
"garden,"  and  cultura,  "tilling."  In  its  broadest  sense,  the 
word  garden  is  its  equivalent,  but  it  is  commonly  used  to  desig- 
nate horticulture  as  applied  to  small  areas,  more  particularly 
when  the  subjects  are  flowers  and  kitchen -garden  vegetables. 
Etymologically,  garden  refers  to  the  engirded  or  confined 
(walled-in  or  fenced-in)  area  immediately  surrounding  the 
residence,  in  distinction  to  the  ager  (lo)  or  field  which  lay 
lieyond.  Hortus  has  a  similar  significance.  Paradise  is,  in 
etymology,    a    name    for    an    enclosed    area;    and   the   term  was 


INTHODli  TION  13 

eiven  to  si>tiu«  of  tlie  eiirly  hooks  on  ganicMiiiif,'.  i-.  j;.,  ParkiuHon's 
"Pannlisiis  Torrestris"  (1G29),  whiob  is  an  iifrount  of  the  oma- 
mpntal  plantii  of  that  period. 

14<i.  Kinjj's  hook  on  "The  Soil"  t-xphiins  the  intimate 
relation  of  pliysionl  forces  to  the  prodiietivity  of  the  land;  and 
the  author  in  Professor  of  Agricultural  Physics  in  the  University 
of  Wisconsin.  There  is  a  Bureau  of  Soils  in  the  National 
Department  of  Agriculture,  the  work  of  which  is  largely  in 
the  field  of  soil  physics.  The  physical  or  mechanical  analysis 
of  soils  is  now  considered  to  be  as  important  ns  the  chemical 
analysis.  Some  of  the  physical  aspects  of  farm  soils  ar»<  dis- 
cussed in  our  chapters  ii..  iii.,  iv.,  v. 

Ida.  Fk'ology  (written  a»cology  in  the  dictionaries)  is  the 
science  which  treats  of  the  relationship  of  organisms  (that  is, 
plants  and  animals)  to  each  other  and  to  their  environments. 
It  is  animal  and  vegetahle  economy,  or  the  general  e.xternal 
phenomena  of  the  living  world.  It  has  to  do  with  modes  and 
hahits  of  life,  as  of  struggle  for  existence,  migrations  and 
nesting  of  birds,  distribution  of  animals  and  plants,  influence 
of  climate  on  oruanisms,  the  way  in  which  any  plant  or  animal 
behaves,  and  the  like.  Darwiu's  works  are  rich  in  ecological 
obser^'ations. 

IC).  Environment  is  the  sum  of  conditions  or  surroundings 
or  circumstances  in  which  any  organism  lives.  An  environment 
of  any  plant  is  the  compound  condition  produced  by  soil, 
climate,  altitude,  struggle  for  existence,  and  so  on. 

I8a.  It  is  customary  to  consider  agricultural  chemistry  as 
the  fundaweutal  science  of  agriculture.  Works  on  agricultural 
chemistry  are  often  called  works  on  agriculture.  But  agricul- 
ture has  no  single  fundamental  science.  Its  success,  as  we 
h.ivK  Bf>«n,  depi-nds  upon  a  union  of  business  methods  and  the 
ipj'l.  I'lons  of  science;  ami  this  science,  in  its  turn,  is  a  co^irdi- 
nation  of  many  sciences.  Chemistry  is  only  one  of  the  scH>nccs 
which  contribute  to  n  better  agriculture.  Under  the  inspiration 
of  Davy.  Liebig,  and  their  followers,  agricultural  chemistry  made 
the  first  great  application  of  science  to  agriculture;  and  upon 
this    foundation    haii   grown    ttte  experiment -station    ulen.     It    i*> 


14  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

not  strange,  therefore,  that  this  science  should  be  more  inti- 
mately associated  than  others  with  agricultural  ideas  ;  but  we 
now  understand  that  agriculture  cannot  be  an  exact  or  definite 
science,  and  that  the  retort  and  the  crucible  can  solve  only  a  few 
of  its  many  problems.  In  particular,  we  must  outgrow  the  idea 
that  by  analyzing  soil  and  plant  we  can  determine  what  the  one 
will  produce  and  what  the  other  needs.  Agricultural  chemistry 
is  the  product  of  laboratory  methods.  The  results  of  thess 
methods  may  not  apply  in  the  field,  because  the  conditions  there 
are  so  different  and  so  variable.  The  soil  is  the  laboratory  in 
which  the  chemical  activities  take  place,  but  conditions  of 
weather  are  ever  modifying  these  activities;  and  it  is  not  always 
that  the  soil  and  the  plant  are  in  condition  to  work  together. 

20a.  As  an  illustration  of  the  agricultural  interest  which 
attaches  to  the  surface  geology  of  a  region,  see  Tarr's  "Geo- 
logical History  of  the  Chautauqua  Grape  Belt,"  Bull.  109  Cor- 
nell Exp.  Sta. 

21a.  Probably  no  less  than  50,000  species  of  plants  (or 
forms  which  have  been  considered  to  be  species)  have  been 
cultivated.  The  greater  number  of  these  are  ornamental  sub- 
jects. Of  orchids  alone,  as  many  as  1,-500  species  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation.  Nicholson's  Illustrated  Dictionary  of 
Gardening  describes  about  40,000  species  of  domesticated  plants. 
Of  plants  grown  for  food,  fiber,  etc.,  De  Candolle  admits  247  spe- 
cies (in  Origin  of  Cultivated  Plants),  but  these  are  only  the  most 
prominent  ones.  Vilmorin  (The  Vegetable  Garden)  describes 
211  species  of  kitchen-garden  vegetables  alone.  Sturtevant 
estimates  (Agricultural  Science,  iii.,  178)  1,076  species  as  having 
been  "recorded  as  cultivated  for  food  use."  Of  some  species, 
the  cultivated  varieties  are  numbered  by  the  thousands,  as  in 
apple,  chrysanthemum,  carnation,  potrto.  Of  animals,  more 
than  50  species  are  domesticated,  find  the  breeds  or  varieties 
of  many  of  them  (as  in  cattle)  run  into  the  hundreds. 

216.  It  is  commonly  said  that  agriculture  is  itself  a  science, 
but  we  now  see  that  this  is  not  true.  It  has  no  field  of  science 
exclusively  its  own.  Its  purpose  is  the  making  of  a  living  for 
its  practitioner,  not  the  extension  of  knowledge.     Tlie  subject  of 


INTRODl'CTION  ir, 

mnthematics   is   nurobtTs.    qnnntity  and    raacnltud*:   of   botany. 

plants ;  of  ornitholo>;y,  binis;    of   en'  •» 

iBtry,   the    composition   of   niuttor:    <■  ,■ 

but  n;;rirultnre  is  a  nioHuic  of  ii>  ,, 

Or,  it  may  bp  said  to  bo  a  couip  .j, 

as    nu>»li»Miu«   anil    snrjjery   aro.      Hut    if    thi»n»   \n    i  of 

agriculture  as    distinct    from   othor   wifnccii,  tlu«   |'  ,      ;.   of 

agriculture  must  bo  scientific;  and  the  fact  that  it  ia  «  rooaaie 
makes  it  all  the  more  difficult  to  fullow,  and  rnforvra  tb«  im- 
portance of  executive  judgment  and  farm  •  praelicA  orer  nvrv 
scientific  knowl»-dpe. 

'2'2i.  The  ])rovince  of  a  text -book  of  airriculturti.  in  otlM>r 
wonls,    is  to  deal  (1)  with  the  orif^innl   j>i.  r»l 

wealth  rather  than  with    its   ninnufa<-turi'.  r. 

for  these   latter  enterpris<  s   are   l;iri;i>ly    mitt.-m   >>(  r 

ouinstnnce  and    individuality,   and   CJ)    with    thox«<   j  nd 

facts  which  are  common  to  all  atrrioulturo,  or  which  tamj  tx« 
considered   to   be   fundatuental. 

'2'2h.  In  other  words,  we  roust  Kearch  for  prineiplra,  not  for 
mere  facta  or  information:  wo  ahall  »oek  to  aak  why  Imforr  wr 
ask  how.  Principles  apply  everywhere*,  but  facta  and  rulr«  may 
apply   only   where   they  '  -n 

laws;    but  there  are  tt  ■    ii 

is  chiefly  the  overconiin^f  of   iuert«  oi>!.:«.  .«  »,  ■•> 

pitious    weather,   and    the    like.      There    are    gr-  »!• 

which    the    learner    must    compreh<  nd  ;     therefor*    wo    abail    •«« 
nothinfr,    in    thi<<    bo<>k,    about    tliH    ineidculalK.    »•    th«    kitida   of 
weeds, the  brnndtt  of  fertilizers,  the  breeds  of  aaiisala,  the  vari* 
tiei  of  flowern 


Paet  I 
THE     SOIL 


Chapter  I 

THE   CONTENTS    OF    THE    SOH. 

1.    What  the  Soil  Is 

23.  The  earth,  the  atmosphere,  and  the  sun- 
light are  the  sources  of  all  life  and  wealth. 
Atmosphere  and  sunlight  are  practically  beyond 
the  control  of  man,  but  the  sm-face  of  the  land 
is  amenable  to  treatment  and  amelioration. 

24.  The  soil  is  that  part  of  the  solid  surface 
of  the  earth  in  which  plants  gi'ovr.  It  varies  in 
depth  from  less  than  an  inch  to  several  feet. 
The  uppermost  part  of  it  is  usually  darkest 
colored  and  most  fertile,  and  is  the  part  which 
is  generally  understood  as  "the  soil"  in  common 
speech,  whereas  the  under  part  is  called  the 
sub -soil.  AVhen  speaking  of  areas,  we  use  the 
word  land  :  but  when  speaking  of  the  particular 
agricultui'al  attributes  of  this  land,  we  may  use 
the  word  soil. 

(16) 


THK     CONTENTS     OK     THE     SOIL  17 

'2.     Ilnir    Su;i    /^     Mnh^ 
2<l.     T)i'    iif'iijiiiiir    >liin'iils 

'_'."».  'I'lie  basis  of  soil  is  fra«::iii<Mits  of  rock. 
To  this  base  is  a«Ul«Hl  the  remains  of  jihiiits  and 
animals  (or  organic  matter) .  When  in  <'<tn(]ition 
to  trntw  plants,  it  also  contains  wati  r.  Tho 
eharaettT  of  any  soil,  then'fort',  is  priniai-ily 
(letermin<'<l  by  the  kintl  of  I'ock  from  whicii  it 
has  <*ome,  and  th**  anionnt  of  oi-^'anir  mattrr 
and  water  whirh  it  contains. 

'_'().  As  tin*  surface  of  the  earth  co(»lrd,  it 
became  rock-bound.  Wiinkles  an<l  ridges  ap- 
peait'd,  f(^rming  mountains  and  valleys.  The 
tendcn«'V  is  for  the  elevations  to  be  lessened  an<l 
the  depressions  to  be  filled.  That  is,  the  surface 
of  thf  <'arth  is  bring  leveled.  The  chief  agency 
in  this  leveling  j)roceys  is  weathering.  The  hills 
and  mountains  are  worn  down  by  alternations  of 
tcmp»'ratur«',  by  frost,  ice,  snow,  rain  an<l  wind. 
They  art'  worn  away  bv  tln'  loss  of  small  par- 
tich's  :  these  particles,  when  gathered  on  the 
hilUid«'>i  or  «leposite<l  on  lower  levels,  form  soil. 

•J7.  The  Weathering  agencies  whi<'li  re<lu<"e 
the  mountains  operate  also  on  level  areas ; 
but  since  the  soil  then  remains  wheie  it  is 
forme«l,  and  thereby  affords  a  ]>roteetion  to 
the  underlying  rock,  the   reduction   of    the   ro<'k 


18  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

usually   proceeds   more   slowly  than    on   inclined 
surfaces. 

28.  There  are,  then,  two  sets  of  forces  con- 
cerned in  the  original  formation  of  soils, —  the 
disintegration  or  wearing  away  of  the  rock,  and 
the  transfer  or  moving  of  the  particles  to  other 
places. 

26.    The   organic   elements   and   agents 

29.  Plants  are  important  agents  in  the  forma- 
tion of  soil.  Their  action  is  of  two  kinds  :  the 
roots  corrode  and  break  up  the  surfaces  of  rock 
and  particles  of  soil,  and  the  plant  finally 
decays  and   adds  some  of   its  tissue  to  the  soil. 

30.  In  the  disintegration  of  rock  and  the 
fining  of  soil,  the  root  acts  in  two  ways  :  it  ex- 
erts a  mechanical  force  or  pressure  as  it  grows, 
cracking  and  cleaving  the  rock  ;  and  it  has  a 
chemical  action  in  dissolving  out  certain  ma- 
terials, and  thereby  consuming  and  weakening 
the    rock. 

31.  Animals  contribute  to  the  formation  of 
soil  by  their  excrement  and  the  decay  of  their 
carcasses.  Burrowing  and  digging  animals  also 
expose  rocks  and  soils  to  weathering,  and  con- 
tribute to  the  transportation  of  the  particles. 
Some  animals  are  even  more  directly  concerned 
in    soil- making.     Of    these,    the    chief    are    the 


Tin:     CONTKNTS     UF     THK     SOIL  19 

various  kinds  ot"  failhworiiis,  oiir  of  wliicli 
is  tlio  t'oiuiiinii  aiii::l(>\vi)i-ni,  Those  animals  eat 
••artli,  whii-li,  wlirn  cxcri't^Ml,  is  more  or  loss 
iriixoil  with  organic  niattiT,  and  tlio  iiiinoral 
partiolos  aro  pcround  and  iuodiJi»'d.  It  is  now 
<'onsidorod  that  in  tho  tonaoious  soils  in  wliich 
thoso  animals  woi'k,  tho  oarth worms  have  Imm-m 
vt-rv  impoi-taiit  aironts  in  litting  tho  oarth  for 
th«'  irrnwini^  of  plants,  and  eonsoqut-ntly  for 
airri<'uitnr<'. 

o'J.  Wliih'  the  liasis  of  most  soils  is  dis- 
into^'at«'d  rook,  thoro  aro  some  soils  which 
aro  ossontially  organic  in  origin.  Thoso  aro 
formo<l  l>y  tho  aooiimulation  of  vogotahlo  niat- 
t«'r,  often  aided  l»y  tho  incorjtoration  of  animal 
nMnains.  In  thi>  ti-opics,  sndi  soils  ar<'  often 
formod  on  shores  and  in  lagoons  by  th«'  exten- 
sion of  the  trunk- like  roots  of  mangroves 
and  other  trees.  In  tht?  network  <tf  roots,  loaves 
and  sea- wrack  are  caught,  and  mold  is  formod. 
Water  plants  (as  marsh  grasses  and  ool-gi*ass) 
are  soniotimes  so  ahundant  on  sea  margins  as 
to  eventually  form  solid  land.  On  the  edges  of 
lakes  and  ponds,  tho  acounuilation  of  water- lily 
rhizomos  and  other  growths  often  atTonls  a  foot- 
hold for  sodgos  and  other  semi-aquatic  jilants  ; 
ami  the  combined  gi'owth  invades  the  lakf  and 
oft.'U  fills  it.  Portions  of  this  decaying  and 
tangled   mass  are  sometimes  torn    awav  bv  wind 


20  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

or  wave,  and  become  floating  islands.  Such 
islands  are  often  several  acres  in  extent.  In 
liigh  latitudes,  where  the  summer's  growth  does 
not  decay  quickly,  one  season's  growth  is  some- 
times added  above  another  until  a  deep  organic 
soil  is  formed.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
the  gradual  increase  in  height  of  sphagnum 
swamps.  Peat  bogs  are  organic  lands,  and  they 
fill  the  beds  of  former  lakes  or  swamps.  Of 
course,  all  these  organic  soils  contain  mineral 
matter,  but  it  is  mostly  such  as  comes  from  the 
decay  of  the  plants  themselves.  It  was  origi- 
nally obtained  from  the  earth,  but  is  used  over 
and  over  again ;  and  each  year  a  little  new 
material  may  be  added  by  such  plants  as  reach 
into  the  hard  land  below,  and  by  that  which 
blows    into   the    area   in    dust. 

33.  Decaying  organic  matter  forms  mold  or 
humus.  The  mineral  elements  may  be  said  to 
give  "body"  to  the  soil,  but  the  humus  is  what 
gives  it  "life"  or  "heart."  Humus  makes  soils 
dark- colored  and  mellow.  Humus  not  only  adds 
plant- food  to  the  soil,  but  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil  and  makes  it  congenial  for 
plants.  It  augments  the  water-holding  capacity 
of  the  soil,  modifies  the  extremes  of  temperature, 
facilitates  the  entrance  of  air,  and  accelerates 
many  chemical  activities.  It  is  the  chief  agent 
in  the  formation  of   loam  :  —  a   sandy  loam  is   a 


THi:     roXTENTS     OK      TIIK     SOIL  21 

friabl«>  soil  ricli  in  vcgotabh'  mattci*,  the  original 
l»asis  of  which  is  san«l  ;  a  clay  loam  is  one  simi- 
larly amclioratctl,  the  Ijasis  of  which  is  clay. 
"Worn-out"  lands  usually  suffer  more  from 
lack  of  hunms  ihan  fi-oni  lack  of  actual  ]»hint- 
food,  and  this  explains  why  the  apjilication  of 
stable-manure  is  so  eHicaci(»us. 

'M.  There  are  three  general  ways  in  which 
hunms  is  obtained  in  farm-i)ractice  :  (1)  By 
means  of  the  vegetable  matt<'r  which  is  left  on 
or  in  the  ground  after  the  crop  is  rcnio\rd  (as 
r(3ots,  stubbl(>,  si»d,  gar<it'ii  i-cfuse);  (2)  by 
means  of  cr«»i»s  grown  and  jdowed  un<ler  for 
that  particular  purpose  (grecn-manui'ing)  ;  (.*])  by 
means  of  dire<'t  ajiplications  to  the  land  (as  com- 
post and  stable-manure).  The  deeper  and  nioic 
extensiv<»  the  root-system  of  any  i>lan!,  the 
greater,  in  general,  is  its  value  as  an  ameliorator 
of  soil,  both  be<'ause  it  itself  exerts  a  nioie  wide- 
spread inlluence  (.'!()),  and  because  when  it  de- 
cays it  ext<'nds  tlie  ameliorating  e<Teet<  ..f  hunms 
to  greater  depths. 

.'J.").  Aside  from  these  x.nied  coinpoiinit  ele- 
ments, fertile  soil  is  inhabited  by  countless  nmn- 
bers  of  micr«»seopic  oriranisms,  which  are  peculiar 
to  it,  and  without  which  its  various  chemical 
activities  can  not  proceed.  These  germs  con- 
tribute to  the  breaking  <lown  of  the  soil  particles 
and   to  the  decay  of    the  organi«"   mat«'rials,   and 


22  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

in  doing  so,  aid  in  the  formation  of  plant -foods. 
The  soil,  therefore,  is  not  merely  an  inert  mass, 
operated  upon  only  by  physical  and  chemical 
forces,  but  it  is  a  realm  of  intense  life  ;  and  the 
discovery  of  this  fact  has  radically  modified  our 
conception  of  the  soil  and  the  means  of  treating 
it.  Enriching  the  land  is  no  longer  the  adding 
of  mere  plant- food  :  it  is  also  making  the  soil 
congenial  to  the  multiplication  and  well-being 
of  micro-organisms. 

2c.    Transportation   of  soils 

36.  The  soil  is  never  at  rest.  The  particles 
move  upon  each  other,  through  the  action  of 
water,  heat  and  cold,  and  other  agencies.  The 
particles,  whether  of  inorganic  or  organic  origin, 
are  also  ever  changing  in  shape  and  composition. 
They  wear  away  and  crumble  under  the  action 
of  weather,  water,  organic  acids  of  the  humus, 
and  the  roots  of  plants.  No  particle  of  soil  is 
now  in  its  original  place.  These  changes  are 
most  rapid  in  tilled  lands,  because  the  soil  is 
more  exposed  to  weather  through  the  tillage 
and  the  aerating  effect  of  deep-rooted  plants 
(as  clover) ;  and  the  stirring  or  tilling  itself 
wears  the  soil  particles.  Even  stones  and  pebbles 
wear  away  (26a) ;  and  the  materials  which  they 
lose  usually  become  productive  elements  of    the 


THE    CONTENTS    OK    THK     SOIL  23 

soil.  Some  laiuls  liavo  very  i»on)Us  <)r"rotteu" 
stones,  and  tlirse  j)ass  (|uickly  into  soil.  Stonos 
are  no  donlit  a  usft'nl  reserv«'  force  in  Tarni 
lands,  giving  n})  their  fertility  very  ^nadually, 
and  thereby  saving  some  of  the  wast«'fulness  of 
eareless  husl)andry.  The  general  tendency,  in 
nature,  is  for  soils  to  become  finer,  nK^re  homo- 
geneous, an<l  better  for  tlic  gi'owth  of  j)lants. 

.'»7.  1)111  tlu're  are  greater  movements  than 
these.  Soil  is  often  transjtorted  long  distances, 
chietly  by  means  of  three  agents:  moving  water, 
ice  and  <n<>\v,  wind.  Transported  soils  are  apt 
to  be  veiy  uidike  the  underlying  rock  (or  origi- 
nal surface),  and  tlun'  are  often  very  hetero- 
geneous or  <'onglomerate  in  chni-acter.  Soils 
which  remain  where  th«'y  are  formed  (1^7) 
naturally  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  bed- 
rock, an<l  arc  generally  more  homogeneous  than 
transported  soils,  as,  for  exanijile,  the  liniestoiie 
soils  which    overlie    great    deposits    of    linie-in»k. 

'.\f^.  Moving  water  always  moves  land.  The 
beating  of  waves  wears  away  rocks  ;nnl  stones 
and  breaks  up  debris,  and  deposits  the  mass  on 
or  near  tlic  shore.  Streams  eai'rv  soils  long 
distances.  The  parti<'les  may  be  in  a  state  of 
suspension  in  the  water,  and  be  precijiitated  in 
tlie  quiet«'r  parts  of  the  streaju  or  in  bayous  or 
lagoons,  or  they  may  be  driven  along  the  bed 
of    the  stream   l)y  the   force  of    the   current,  and 


24  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

be  deposited  wherever  obstructions  occur,  or  be 
disciiarged  on  the  delta  at  the  mouth.  The 
deposition  of  sediment  in  times  of  overflow 
adds  new  vigor  to  the  submerged  lands.  The 
historic  example  of  this  is  the  Nile  valley, 
but  all  bottom  lands  which  are  subjected  to 
periodical  overflows  exhibit  the  same  result. 
Alluvial  lands  are  formed  from  the  deposition 
of   the   sediment  of   water. 

39.  In  mountainous  regions,  snow  and  ice 
carry  away  great  quantities  of  rock  and  soil. 
The  most  powerful  transporters  of  soil  are  gla- 
ciers, or  moving  masses  of  ice.  Glaciers  loosen 
t,he  rock  and  then  grind  and  transport  it.  In 
the  glacial  epoch,  in  which  much  of  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  northern  hemisphere  was  cov- 
ered with  gigantic  ice -sheets  slowly  moving  to 
the  southward,  enormous  quantities  of  rock  and 
earth  were  transported,  and  deposited  wherever 
the  ice  melted.  In  eastern  North  America,  the 
ice- front  advanced  to  the  latitude  of  the  Ohio 
river,  and  the  boulder- strewn  fields  and  varied 
soils  to  the  northward  of  this  latitude  are  the 
legacy  which  the  epoch  left  to  the   farmer. 

40.  In  all  areas  which  are  subjected  to 
periods  of  drought,  the  wind  transports  soils  in 
the  form  of  dust,  often  in  great  amounts  and 
for  long  distances.  In  some  parts  of  the  world, 
so   much   earth  is  carried   by  violent  winds  that 


THE     CONTENTS     OF     THE     SOIL  25 

ihoso  winds  an*  kn<i\vn  as  "sand-storms."  Most 
•chores,  i»articularly  if  sandy,  arc  luticli  modified 
l»y  tlu'  at'tion  of  wind.  Hut  tlu'  wind  lias  an 
infhionct^  u}»<^n  soils  even  in  tlio  most  pi\>toct('d 
and  t'ljuable  regions.  Tlic  atiiiosplim^  contains 
dust,  much  of  wliicli  is  valuable  itlant-food. 
This  dust  is  transported  by  winds,  and  it  finally 
settles  or  is  earri«'d  down  by  snow  arid  rain. 
Although  the  amount  ot'  dust  which  is  deposited 
in  any  giv»>n  tim«»  may  be  slight,  it  is  nevrTtlic- 
less  eontinuous,  and  has  an  important  cllect 
upon    the    soil. 

3.    7' In-   Ursourccs  of  the  Soil 

41.  The  soil  affords  a  root -hold  for  phmts, — 
a  piac*'  in  whirh  they  can  grow.  It  also  supplies 
the  enviroiuncntal  conditions  which  roots  need, — 
|)rotection,  moisture,  air,  agreeable  t<Mnp«Mature, 
and  other  congenial  surroundings. 

4'_*.  The  soil  is  also  a  store-house  of  plant- 
food.  Roberts  calculates,  fiom  many  analyses, 
that  in  avrrage  aLn-i<-ultural  lands  the  suifai'c 
eight  inches  of  sod  «>n  each  a<*re  contains  over 
.'],Oi)n  pcnmds  of  nitro^.'U,  nearly  4,()()()  jiounds 
of  phosphoric  acid,  and  over  17,000  jxnmds  of 
potash.  The.se  three  elements  are  the  ones  which 
the  farmer  must  chiefly  consider  in  maintaining 
or  augmenting  the  pnxluctive  power  of  the  lun<l  ; 


26  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

yet  the  figures  ''reveal  the  fact  that  even  the 
poorer  soils  have  an  abundance  of  plant -food 
for  several  crops,  while  the  richer  soils  in 
some  cases  have  sufficient  for  two  hundred  to 
three  hundred  crops  of  wheat  or  maize."  Yet 
these  calculations  are  made  from  only  the 
upper   eight    inches    of    soil. 

43.  Happily,  this  food  is  not  all  du-ectly 
available  or  useful  to  plants  (being  locked  up 
in  insoluble  combinations),  else  it  would  have 
been  exhausted  by  the  first  generations  of 
farmers.  It  is  gi-adually  unlocked  by  weather, 
micro-organisms,  and  the  roots  of  plants  ;  and 
the  better  the  tillage,  the  more  rapid  is  its 
utilization.  Plants  differ  in  the  power  to  unlock 
or  make  use  of  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 

44.  Nature  maintains  this  store  of  fertility 
by  returning  her  crops  to  the  soil.  Every 
tree  of  the  forest  finally  crumbles  into  earth. 
She  uses  the  materials,  then  gives  them  back 
in  a  refined  and  improved  condition  for  other 
plants  to  use.     She  repays,  and  with  interest. 

45.  Man  removes  the  crops.  He  sends  them 
to  market  in  one  form  or  another,  and  the 
materials  are  finally  lost  in  sewage  and  the 
sea.  He  sells  the  productive  power  of  his 
land  ;  yet  it  does  not  follow  that  he  impoverishes 
his  soil  in  proportion  to  the  plant -food  which  he 
sells.     Given   the    composition   of    any  soU    and 


b 


THK     CONTENTS     OK      rUh     SiJll.  27 

of  tlit>  crops  which  it  is  to  produce,  it  is  easy  to 
calcuhite  the  time  when  the  soil  will  have  lost 
its  power ;  but  it  must  he  rememljored  that  th«' 
materials  which  the  }>laut  removes  arc  consumed, 
and  that  the  volume  of  the  soil  is  reduct'd  hy 
that  amount.  The  i-rsult  is,  then>fore,  that  the 
deaper  parts  of  the  snil  aj'e  hnHiirlit  into  re(|ui- 
sitioii  as  fast  as  the  up]»t«i-  parts  ai'c  consumed  ; 
and  these  depths  will  last  as  JouiT  ;i^  the  earth 
hists. 

4t>.  (  >f  some  materials,  howcvei-,  the  plant 
uses  more  freely  than  of  others,  in  i»>«)portion  to 
th»'ir  ahundance  in  the  soil.  Therefore  th«'  soil 
may  linally  lose  its  prochictivity,  althouirh  it  is 
doulitfnl  if  it  can  ever  he  conipletfly  exhausted 
of   plant-food. 

17.  A,<^ain,  tiie  profit  in  ai^ricultuic  oftm  lies 
in  making  the  soil  pi-oduce  more  ahundantly 
than  it  is  of  itself  aide  to  d(».  That  is,  even 
after  tilla«^e  and  ev«>rv  other  care  hnve  forcecl 
the  soil  to  respond  Ut  its  full  ahility.  it  may 
pay  tin*  farmer  to  l»uy  plant-food  in  hairs  in  the 
same  way  that  it  may  pay  him  to  l»uy  irround 
feed  when  fatteninir  sheep.  Wlwther  it  is  ad- 
visable to  buy  this  plant -foo<l  is  a  matter  of 
business  judpinent  which  every  farmer  nuist 
determine  for  himself,  after  having  considered 
the  three  fun<lamental  t'aetors  in  the  pmhlem  : 
the    cost    of    the    plant -t' I     (or    fertilizer),    the 


J8  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

probable  effect  of  this  extra  food  upon  the  crop, 
and  the  commercial  value  of  the  extra  crop.  In 
general,  it  should  be  considered  that  in  mixed 
husbandry  the  fertility  of  the  land  must  be 
maintained  by  means  of  farm -practice  (that  is, 
by  good  farming),  and  that  plant-food  should 
be  bought  only  for  the  purpose  of  producing  the 
extra  product. 

48.  We  are  now  able  to  comprehend  that 
the  soil  is  a  compound  of  numberless  inorganic 
and  organic  materials,  a  realm  of  complex 
physical  and  chemical  forces,  and  the  scene  of 
an  intricate  round  of  life.  We  must  no  longer 
think  of  it  as  mere  dirt.  Moreover,  we  are  only 
beginning  to  understand  it;  and  if  the  very  soil 
is  unknown  to  us,  how  complicated  must  be  the 
great  structure  of  agriculture  which  is  reared 
upon   it ! 

SUGGA'STIOyS    ox   CHAPIER   I 

25a.  The  word  organic  refers  to  animals  and  plants  or  their 
products  and  remains  ;  that  is,  to  things  -which  live  and  have 
organs.  Organic  compounds,  in  chemistry,  are  those  which 
have  been  built  up  or  produced  by  the  action  of  a  plant  or 
animal.  Modern  usage,  however,  defines  organic  compounds  as 
those  which  contain  carbon.  Starch,  sugar,  woody  fiber,  are 
examples. 

2ob.  Inoi'ganie  compounds  are  such  as  are  not  produced  by 
living  organisms,  as  all  the  mineral  compounds.  They  are 
found  in  the  earth  and  air.  Salt,  potash,  iron  and  gold, 
lime,  are    examples. 


THK     CONTENTS     OF    THK     SOIL  29 

25r.  The  orj^anic  matter  in  soils— tlie  plant  and  animal 
remains— is  removed  by  burning.  Let  tlio  pupil  seouro  n  cupful 
of  wet  soil  and  carefully  weigh  it  on  delioato  scales.  Then  let 
it    dry  in  the  sun,   atnl  weigh  again  ;    t!ie  dilTerence  in  weight  is 

^  t  : 


^>^^ 


-"^i       -. 
A'^'^*^^-^' 

^^X^'- 


i  ..:    1      >  .    Aitig  the  wenriiii;  .'i».i>  i>i  mountain  peaks  auJ  iho  formation  of 
Koll  nt  the  bam*. 

du«  to  the  loss  or  evaporation  of  water.  Now  place  it  in  a 
ino^IiTutely  warm  oven  or  on  a  stove,  and  after  a  ffW  niinuti  s 
weigh  agnin  ;  more  of  the  water  will  now  have  passed  off.  N«>w 
thoroughly  burn  or  bake  it,  nnd  weigh  ;  the  losa  is  now  mostly 
due  to  the  burning  of  the  organic  matter,  ond  part  of  this 
matter  has  passed  off  as  gas.  If  there  is  no  perceptible  loss 
from  the  hurning.  it  is  evidi«nco  that  the  sample  contained  little 
orgnnic  matter.  Note  the  difference  in  result."*  between  ciny  nnd 
muck.  The  pupil  may  also  l>e  interested  to  try  to  grow  plants 
in  the  bakeil  soil. 


30  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

26a.  The  wearing  away  of  rock  by  the  weather  may  be  ob- 
served wherever  stones  are  exposed.  Even  granite  and  marble 
monuments  lose  their  polish  and  luster  in  a  few  years.  The 
sharp  and  angular  projections  disappear  from  the  ledges  and 
broken  stones  of  railway  cuts  and  quarries.  The  pupil  should 
look  for  the  wear  on  any  rocks  with  which  he  may  be  familiar. 
All  stones  tend  to  grow  smaller.  On  a  large  scale,  the  wasting 
of  rocks  may  be  seen  in  the  debris  at  the  base  of  precipices  and 
mountain  peaks  (Fig.  1),  or  wherever  steep  walls  of  rock  are 
exposed.  The  palisades  of  the  Hudson,  and  other  precipitous 
river  and  lake  bluffs,  show  this  action  well.  Mountains  tend  to 
become  rounded  in  the  long  processes  of  time,  although  some 
rocks  are  of  such  structure  that  they  hold  their  pointed  shape 
until  worn  almost  completely  away.  In  Geikie's  "Geological 
Sketches,"  Essay  No.  8,  the  reader  will  find  an  interesting 
account  of  weathering  as  illustrated  by  the  decay  of  tombstones. 

26b.  The  extent  of  this  weathering  and  denuding  process  in 
the  formation  of  soils  may  be  graphically  illustrated  by  the  pres- 
ent conformation  of  the  Alps  and  adjacent  parts  of  Europe. 
Lubbock  writes  that  "much  of  the  deposits  which  occupy  the 
valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Po,  Ehone,  Reuss,  Inn,  and  Danube — the 
alluvium  which  forms  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  of  Germany,  of 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  of  southeast  France — consists  of  materials 
washed  down  from  the  Swiss  mountains."  The  amount  of  mate- 
rial which  has  been  removed  from  the  Alps  is  probably  "  almost 
as  great  as  that  which  still  remains."  So  great  has  been  the 
denudation  that  in  certain  cases  "what  is  now  the  top  of  the 
mountain  was  once  the  bottom  of  a  valley/'  The  Matterhorn,  the 
boldest  and  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Alps,  "  is  obviously  a  rem- 
nant of  an  ancient  ridge,"  and  the  "present  configuration  of  the 
surface  [of  Switzerland]  is  indeed  mainly  the  result  of  denuda- 
tion. *  *  It  is  certain  that  not  a  fragment  of  the  original  sur- 
face is  still  in  existence,  though  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  the 
mountains  were  at  any  time  so  much  higher,  as  elevation  and 
denudation  went  on  together."  There  is  even  evidence  to  show 
that  an  earlier  range  of  mountains  occupied  the  site  of  the 
present   Alps,   and   that   these  old   mountains   were  removed  or 


THE     CONTENTS     OF     THE     SOIL 


31 


worn   away  by  donudation. — See    Sir    John    Lubbock,   "Scenery    9/ 
StriUerUinil,"  Chaps.  Hi.  and  iv. 

29*1.  Even  hard  .surfaces  of  rook  often  support  lichens, 
mosses,  and  other  humble  plants.  "The  plant  is  co-partner 
with  the  weather  in  the  building  of  the  primal  soils.  The  lichen 
spreads  its  thin  substance  over  the  nx-k,  sending  its  fibt-rs  into 
the  crevices  and  filling  the  chinks, 
as  they  enlarge,  with  the  decay 
of  its  own  structure  ;  and  finally 
the  rock  is  fit  for  the  moss  or 
fern  or  cr«'eping  vine,  each  new- 
comer leaving  its  impress  by  which 
some  later  newcomer  may  profit. 
Final'.y  the  rock  is  disintegrateil 
and  comminuted,  and  is  ready  to 
be  .still  further  elaborated  by  corn 
and  ragweed.  Nature  intends  to 
leave  no  vacant  or  bare  places. 
She  providently  covers  the  rail- 
way embankment  with  quack -grass 
or  willows,  and  she  scatters  daisies 
in  the  old  meadows  where  the  land 
has  grown  sick  and  tin-d  of  grass." 
I'nnriplcs  0/  Fruit -(inncing,  J7G. 

30a.  It  is  interesting  to  consider  the  general  rea.sons  tor  the 
wolution  of  the  root.  Plants  were  at  first  aipiatic,  and  probably 
absorlK-d  foo«I  from  the  water  on  all  their  surfaces.  They  mav 
not  have  bi««>n  attached  to  the  earth.  As  tlK-y  wore  driven  into 
a  more  or  loss  terrestrial  life  by  the  receding  of  the  waters  ami 
as  a  result  of  the  struggle  for  existence,  they  develoiied  parts 
which  penetrated  the  earth.  These  parts  were  probably  only 
hold -fasts  at  first,  as  the  roots  of  many  seaweeds  are  at  the  pres- 
ent time.  But  as  it  became  less  and  less  possibU-  for  the  genenil 
surface  of  tho  plant  to  absorb  food,  the  hold-fa-st  gradually  b<'- 
came  a  foo<l- gathering  or  feeding  member.— .S<'r  Survival  of  the 
Cnlih.  pp.   41-43. 

.'(0/..    If  the  pupil  has  aeceM  to  ledges  of  rock  on  which  tr«M<H 


m"'^ 

^  -^    J 


-iac^j^' 


F\g. '.'.     1  no  halves  oi  a  rock  ton*e<J 
apart  by  th«>  ifrowih  of  a  irw*. 


32 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 


are  growing,  he  will  readily  be  able  to  satisfy  himself  that  roots 
force  open  cracks  and  thereby  split  and  sever  the  stone.  Fig.  2 
is  an  example,  showing  how  a  black  cherry  tree,  gaining  a 
foothold  in  a  crevice,  has  gradually  forced  the  parts  of  the  rock 


'5^^- 


Fig.  3.     Lichens  have  ol)taiiiecl  a  foothold. 


asunder.  This  particular  example  is  the  "half-way  stone"  be- 
tween the  Michigan  Agricultural  College  and  the  city  of  Lansing. 
Fig.  3  shows  a  stone  upon  which  lichens  have  obtained  a  foot- 
hold. Any  person  who  has  worked  much  in  a  garden  will  have 
seen  how  roots  often  surround  a  bone,  taking  their  food  from  its 
surface  and  insinuating  themselves  into  the  cracks.  Koots  will 
corrode  or  eat  out  the  surface  of  marble.  The  grinding  up  of  stones 
is  well  illustrated  on  any  h-dce  sliore,  where  tlie  pebbles  represent 
what  is  left  at  the  present  time  of  tlie  stones  and  fragments.  The 
rolling  stones  in  brooks  repi'esrnt  a  similar  action. 

3u<'.  By  chemical  action  is  meant  tlie  change  from  which  results 
a  new  chemical  combination.  It  produces  a  rearrangement  of 
molecules.     For  example,  the  change  which  takes  place  when,  by 


THE     CONTEXTS     OF    THE     SOIL 


33 


unttintr  liino  ami  sulfurio  iiciil,  sulfate  of  liiue  or  pypsuni  is  pro- 
duofil,   is  cheiuical  action. 

31(1.  KnowUiljje  of  thi«  work  of  tho  t'arthworra  in  buildinp 
soils  dates  practically  from  the  issue  of  Darwin's  remarkable 
book,  "The  Formation  of  Vegetable  Mould,  through  the  Action  of 
Worms,"  which  the  reader  should  consult  for  particulars.  The 
subject  is  also  considered  briefly  in  King's  "Soil,"  Chap,  i.,  which 
also  discusses  the  general  means  of  soil -building. 

3'Ji.  As  an  example  of  the  formation  of  organic  soils  in  the 
tropics,  read  accounts  of  the  mangrove.     Its  mode  of  propagation 


I 


•'l^'..^ 


t'lK.  -t.     A  uella  lu  nu  unliunl. 


is  explained,  with  illustrations,  in  Bailey's  '"  I.K?ssonM  with  Plants," 
pp.  n71-:»74:  the  tree  is  also  d««scribed  in  Chap.  v.  of  Gaye's 
''Great  World's  Farm."  As  an  example  of  a  formation  of  a  peat 
bog  by  the  growth  of  sphagnum,  read  Ganong  "On  Raised  Peot- 
bogs  in  New  Brunswick,"  Botanical  Gazette,  pp.  I2:J-l"-'n.  May, 
1801  Sphagnum  is  moss  which  grows  in  cold  bogs.  Nurserj'iueo 
mod  florists  use  it  in  tho  packing  of  plants. 


34  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

33a.  When  spelled  humus,  the  word  is  a  noun ;  when  spelled 
humous,  it  is  an  adjective,  as  "humous  soils." 

34a.  Compost  is  decayed  or  decaying  organic  matter  which  it 
is  intended  shall  be  applied  to  the  land.  It  is  usually  obtained 
by  placing  leaves,  sod,  manure  or  litter  in  a  low  flat-topped  (so 
that  it  will  catch  the  rain)  pile,  and  "turning  it,"  or  forking  it 


Pig.  5.    A  compost  pile. 

over,  every  few  weeks,  to  prevent  heating  and  to  hasten  uniform 
decomposition  (Fig.  .5).  When  the  mass  has  passed  into  the 
condition  of  humus  or  mold  (or  become  fine  and  soil-like),  it  is 
applied  to  the  land.  Composting  is  a  most  useful  means  of 
utilizing  leaves,  garden  refuse,  and  other  materials  which  are 
too  coarse  or  "raw"  to  be  applied  directly  to  the  land. 

35a.  "The  term  micro-organism  is  a  general  one,  which 
includes  any  very  minute,  microscopic  form  of  life.  More  strictly 
speaking,  the  word  has  come  to  apply  especially  to  certain  forms 
of  plant  life  which  are  too  minute  to  be  seen  individually  by  the 
naked  eye,  and  which  hence  require  for  their  study  the  higher 
powers   of   the  microscope." — FreiVk   D.    Chester,  Bull.  xL,  Del. 


THK     CONTEXTS     OF     THK     SOIL  35 

F.rp.  Sta.  The  tt-nns  (jt-nn,  microbe,  iHicttTium  (plitrul  bartenu), 
are  popularly  used  in  the  Bame  sense  as  luifro-orgaiiisni.  Thesi< 
beings  are  usually  unicellular  (each  one  consisting  of  only  a 
single  cell).  They  are  generally  classitied  with  plants.  The  rAle 
of  mifro-orgJ»nisnis  in  renilering  soil  eU'inents  available  to  plants 
is  Ttry  complex  and  not  yet  well  understood.  A  general  dis- 
cussion of  tli«-s««  organisms  will  be  found  in  Lipnian's  "  Haeteria 
in  Ti"Iation  to  Country  Life  "  The  relation  to  germs  in  nitrification 
is  briefly  diseuss»'«l  in  King's  "Soil,"  i)p.  125-134,  :i!id  l<<>l>frts' 
"Fertility," '244-248.     Fig.  6  illustrates  one  of  the  q     c-fV* 

common    bacteria,   very    much    magnified.       This  ^^  ^o<i 

species  (Bacillus  ubiquitus)   is  abundant  in  water,      ^  ff      ^ 
air,  and  decaying  substances.  •'         ^'^Jfc 

38<i.  Obser\-e  tin-  deposits  of  sand  in  the  quiet  ^^ 

side  (usually  the  concave  side)  of  streams,  and  Fit:- s  Mirro-or 
also  the  delti,  where  a  rapid  rill  flows  into  a  slow  «»">*">».  Krpatly 
one.      When    the    rill    flows    into  a   rapiil   stream,  "^ 

the  largi  r  curn-iit  carries  away  the  deposit  so  that  it  may  not  be 
seen.  Kecall  how  snml-bars  form  again  and  a;:ain  in  lakes,  and 
how  streams  must  be  frequently  dredged  to  keep  the  channel 
opeo.  The  slower  the  stream  the  more  quickly  does  it  drop  its 
sediment  ;  and  the  more  winding,  also,  is  its  course,  lying  in  the 
bed  of  its  own  de|K>sits.    (See  Fig.  4.) 

38fc.  Dip  a  glass  of  water  from  a  roily  stream,  and  ohser^-e 
the  earth  wliich  st-ttles  to  the  bottom. 

39a.  Glaciers  are  still  iil>!iiidiint  in  alpine  and  arctic  regions. 
It  was  from  the  study  of  glaciers  in  the  Alps  that  Agassiz  con- 
coived  the  hypothesis  that  large  parts  of  the  earth  had  once 
been  subjt-cted  to  glacial  action.  A  good  popular  discussion  of 
glaeiers  and  their  action  may  bo  found  in  Chap.  xvii.  of  Tarr's 
"Elementarj'  Physical  Geography."  Dfliijhtful  readings  may  also 
be  made  from  Agasaiz's  "Geological  Skc-tehes." 

40a.  L«'t  the  pupil  cafch  a  few  rain  drops  on  a  perfectly  clean 
and  clear  pane  of  glass,  and  oh8er>'e  if  any  sediment  is  left  when 
the  drops  have  evaporat»^l.  Is  there  any  difference  in  the  amount 
of  dust  brought  down  8ftera"drj*  spell"  und  after  a  periotl  of 
rainy  weather,  or  at  the  begianing  and  end  of   a  shower  T     I'he 


36  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

pupil  may  now  be  able  to  explain  why  the  windows  get  dirty  after 
a  rain  ;  and  he  will  be  interested  in  the  streaks  on  the  corniees 
of  buildings  and  on  exposed  statuary.  He  may  have  heard  that 
even  sailing  ships  get  dusty  when  at  sea. 

42a.  See  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  IG.  Read  all 
of  Chapter  i.  The  food  which  is  not  available,  or  not  in  condi- 
tion to  be  used  by  the  plant,  but  which  may  become  available 
through  good  tillage  or  otherwise,  is  called  potential  plant-food. 
43rt.  The  soil  is  not  a  simple  reservoir  of  plant- food  in  the 
condition  of  salt  or  sugar,  ready  to  be  dissolved  in  water  and 
immediately  taken  up  Dy  roots.  The  soil  is  plant-food  ;  but 
most  of  it  must  be  changed  in  composition  before  it  is  available 
to  plants  ;  and  the  elements  are  not  present  in  the  proportions 
which  plants  require,  so  that  much  of  the  soil  is  in  excess  of  the 
needs  of  plants  and  can  never  be  used  as  food. 

48a.  For  supplementary  reading  on  the  formation  of  soils, 
Chapter  i.  of  King's  "  Soil"  should  be  consulted.  Most  text-books 
of  geology  also  treat  the  subject  to  some  extent.  Shaler's  article 
on  soil,  in  12th  Annual  Report  of  tlie  U.  S  Geological  Survey 
(pp.  319-34.5),  is  excellent.  A  discussion  of  weathering  may  be 
found  in  Chapter  vi.  of  Tarr's  "Elementary  Geology;"  and  other 
references  arecontaimed  in  Chapters  xiii.and  xxi.  of  his  "Elemen- 
tary Physical  Geograpliy."  Stockbridge's  "Rocks  and'  Soils" 
(1895)  has  special  reference  to  agriculture.  A  readable  account 
of  the  formation  of  soil  may  be  found  in  Chapters  iii..  iv.  and  v., 
Gaye's  "Great  Word's  Farm."  Merrill's  "Rocks,  Rock-Weather- 
ing and  Soils"  (1897)  is  a  full  scientific  discussion  of  tlie  subject. 
Consult  Hilgard's  "Soils,"  and  the  text  by  Lyon  avd  Pippin;  also 
the  part  on  soils  in  Vol.  I,  Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture. 


Chapter    II 
TIIK  TKXTl'KK  AND  STinCTlK'K  OF  TIIK   SOIL 

1.      W'littt    Is    Meant    by     'I'f.iiKre 

4I>.  \\'»'  ljav«'  scrii  tliat  tlic  olliccs  of  tlif  soil 
art'  of  two  general  kiii<ls, — it  atYoi'ds  a  piiysiral 
iiitHlium  in  wliieli  the  jilant  can  <xro\v  (41),  and 
it  sh|)|»lies  materials  that  the  ]>lant  uses  in 
th»'  hiiilding  of  its  tissues  (4'J).  it  cannot  Ite 
said  that  one  of  these  olliccs  is  more  imjtortant 
than  the  other,  since  hoth  arc  essential;  hut 
attenti«)n  lias  been  so  loni^  lixcd  upon  the  mere 
content  of  soils  that  it  is  im])ortant  to  eiiijiha- 
size  the  physical  uttrihutes.  Crops  cannot  j^row 
on  a  rock,  no  matter  how  nui<-ii  j»lant-food  it 
may  contain.  The  passing  of  nx'k  into  soil 
is  a  matter  of  change  in  textui'c  and  structure 
more  than  in  plant-food.  Textuie  refers  to  the 
size  of  th«»  j)articles  ;  structure  to  the  ariaiiL-'c- 
ment  of  the  particles. 

50.  The  physical  state  of  the  soil  may  he 
spoken  of  as  its  structure,  much  as  we  speak  of 
the  stru«*tnre  of  a  house  of  hrick  or  stone.  The 
common  adjectives  that  are  applied  to  the  condi- 
tion   of   agricultural    soils   are  descriptions  of   its 

(37) 


38  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

structure:  as,  mellow,  hard,  loose,  compact,  op'en, 
porous,  shallow,  deep,  leachy,  retentive,  lumpy, 
cloddy,  fine  in   good   tilth. 

51.  Texture  and  structure  must  not  be  con- 
founded with  tlie  physical  forces  or  operations  in 
the  soil,  as  the  fluctuations  of  temperature,  move- 
ments of  water,  circulation  of  air.  They  refer  to 
condition  or  state,  and  are  passive,  not  to  forces 
or  movements,  which  are  active;  but  it  is  upon 
this  passive  condition  that  the  operation  of  both 
physical  and  chemical  forces  chiefly  depends. 

2.    Why  Good  Texture  and  Structure  are  Important 

52.  A  finely  divided,  mellow,  friable  soil  is 
more  productive  than  a  hard  and  lumpy  one  of 
the  same  chemical  composition,  because:  It 
holds  and  retains  more  moisture;  holds  more 
air;  promotes  nitrification;  hastens  the  decom- 
position of  the  mineral  elements;  has  less  varia- 
ble extremes  of  temperature;  allows  a  better 
root-hold  to  the  plant;  presents  greater  surface 
to  the  roots.  In  all  these  ways,  and  others,  the 
mellowness  of  the  soil  renders  the  plant-food 
more  available,  and  affords  a  congenial  and 
comfortable  place  in  which  the   plant  may  grow. 

53.  Good  structure  (as  understood  by  the  far- 
mer) not  only  facilitates  and  hastens  the  physi- 
cal  and  chemical   activities,  but  it  also  presents 


TllK      ll.XIIKK     OK      llli;     SOU,  IVJ 

a  gri-«»ater  feeding- surface  to  roots,  because  the 
particles  of  earth  are  very  small  (.')2).  Koots 
feed  on  the  surfaces  of  hard  particles  of  earth, 
\\\u\  the  feedin.u:-ai-»'a  is  tlu'rcfoic  increased  in 
j)roj>ortion  to  the  incrtMsc  in  the  sui'face  area 
of  tlif  particles.  I)ivi<linix  a  cui)e  into  two 
•  ••|ual  jtarts  increases  its  surface  area  l»y  one- 
tliii'd.  (Dividing  a  cuhe  ad<ls  two  sides  or 
surfari's.)  Fining  the  s(>il  may  therefore  he 
equivalent  to  fertilizing  it,  so  far  as  i>lant- 
growth    is    conc»»rned. 

:;.     //<)>('  (io))({  SfrurtKre  is  Secured 

.'>4.  'i'hc  size  of  the  soil  particles,  dctcrmin- 
i!ig  the  texture  of  the  soil,  cannot  he  modified  to 
any  api)reciable  extent  by  ordinaiy  farm  practices. 
Tillage  has  little  effect  in  I'hanging  tlu'  size  of 
the  ultimate  parti<*les. 

55.  The  arrangement  of  the  p;irti(^les,  whirh 
determines  the  structure,  can  he  gitatly  (•li;im:'d 
hy  farm  practice.  If  th«»  structure  is  lumpy  and 
open,  tln<  soil  needs  pulverization;  if  it  is  com- 
j)act  an<l  hard,  it  needs  loosening  up.  \'ery 
loose  and  h»achy  soils  are  usually  improved  if 
the  particles,  j»articularly  in  the  under  soil,  are 
brouu'ht   together  and  compacte«l. 

.')().  The  size  of  the  granules  (or  aggregations 
"f  particles)  of  soils  is  modified   liy  three  general 


40  PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

means:  (a)  by  apply  mechanical  force,  as  in  all 
the  operations  of  tilling;  (6)  by  setting  at  work 
various  physical  forces,  as  weathering  (fall-plow- 
ing is  a  typical  example),  and  the  results  follow- 
ing under-draining;  (c)  by  applying  some  nia- 
teiial  that  acts  chemically  on  the  particles.  (The 
first  caption,  a,  is  illustrated  in  paragraphs  26, 
'2Ga,  266,  27,  28;  and  it  is  further  explained  in 
Chapter  iv.) 

57.  (b)  Under-drainage  has  two  general  uses, 
— it  removes  superfluous  water,  and  inij^roves 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil.  The  latter 
use  is  often  the  more  important.  The  improve- 
ment of  the  texture  is  the  result,  chiefly,  of 
preventing  water-soaking  and  of  admitting  air. 
Under-drained  soils  become  "deeper."  The  water- 
table  is  lowered,  since  the  depth  at  which  water 
stands  tends  to  approach  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  depth  of  the  drains  and  thereby  the  plant 
roots  are  enabled  to  penetrate  more  deeply. 

58.  (c)  Some  substances  have  the  power  to 
break  down  or  to  pulverize  hard  soils,  or  to  bind 
together  loose  ones,  or  otherwise  to  modify  the 
structure.  Such  materials — which  are  applied 
for  their  remote  or  secondary  chemical  effects — 
are  called  amendments.  Lime  is  a  typical  ex- 
auiple.  Quick-lime  is  known  to  make  clay  lands 
mellow,  and  it  is  supposed  to  cement  or  bind 
together  the  particles  of  sands  or  gravels.     Most 


L 


TUK      TKXTrRE      OF      THE      SOIL  41 

choinical  ftM'tilizors  aro  both  {nnciHliiionts  and 
(liivi't  fortilizors,  siiico  tlioy  nuxlily  the  f>tnic'ture 
of   the  soil  as  well  as  add  ])hiiit-fo()d  to  it. 

')9.  Tho  oxtranoous  or  suppkMiientaiy  iiia- 
t«'rials  {7)A)  which  diivctly  inodil'y  tlio  stiuctiirt* 
of  soils  aro  thoso  that  make  humus  (.'i.'!), 
as  i^ft'cn-iuaiiurcs,  faiMii-iiiaiiurfs,  and  tlif  lik'-. 
Stahlt'-nianuro  is  usually  more  inii>()rtant  in  im- 
proving^ soil  structure  than  in  directly  sui>i>lyiii«i: 
plant- food. 

4.    StrKctKrc  and  Mn)/i(rcs 

tlO.  \Vc  have  now  sfcn  that  the  farmer 
shotiM  irive  attention  to  the  structure  of  his  soil 
before  ho  worries  about  its  ri(diness.  The  con- 
ditions must  first  be  made  fit  or  comfortable 
tor  tin'  i^rowin.LC  of  i>lants:  then  the  stimulus 
of  s{»eei;d  or  iiii^h  feedini^  may  lie  aj»plied. 
But  maniM'es  and  fertilizers  nniy  aid  in  secui- 
in.ii^  this  t?ood  sti'uctme  at  tlu»  same  time  that 
they  add  ]»laiit-food.  Vet  fertilize)-,  how.ver 
rieh,  may  be  applied  to  .soils  wholly  without 
avail;  and  the  best  j'esults  from  condensetl 
or  chemical  fertilizers  are  usually  secured  on 
>  >ils  that  are  in  the  best  tilth.  That  is,  it  is 
almost  useless  to  ap|»ly  commercial  fertilizers 
to  lands  that  are  not  in  proper  physical  coii- 
dition  for  tlie  best  prrowth  of  crops. 


42 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


SUOOE^TIONS    ON    CHAPTER    II 

49a,  The  following  extracts  from  Bulletin  119  of  the  Cor- 
nell Experiment  Station  illustrate  the  subject  under  discussion: 
"The  other  day,  I  secured  one  sample  of  soil  from  a  very  hard 
clay  knoll  upon  which  beans  had  been  planted,  but  in  which 
they  were   almost  unable  to  germinate;    another  sample  from  a 


Fig.  7.     Examples  of  poor  and  good  texture. 

contiguous  soil,  in  which  beans  were  growing  luxuriantly;  and, 
as  a  third  sample,  I  chipped  a  piece  of  rock  off  my  house,  which 
is  built  of  stone  of  the  neighborhood.  All  of  these  samples  were 
taken  to  the  chemist  for  analysis.  The  samples  of  soil  which 
were  actually  taken  to  the  chemist  are  shown  in  Fig.  7.  The 
rock  (sample  III),  was  hard  native  stone." 

The  figures  give  the  percentages  of  some  of  the  leading  con- 
stituents in  the  three  materials.    , 

PhosphoTic  Organic 

Moisture      Nitrogen     '    add       Potash  Lime  matter 

I.  Unproductive  clay...    13.25                .08                 .20           1.1  .41  3.19 

II.  Good  beau  land 15.95                .11                 .17              .75  .61  5.45 

III.     Rock .08           2.12  2.55        


"In  other  words,  the  chemist  says  that  the   poorer  soil — the 
one  upon  which  I  cannot  grow  beans — is  the  richer  in  mineral 


THK     TKXTL'RE     OF     Till:     SOIL  43 

plant -food,  nnd  tbnt  the  rock  contains  a  most  aluindant  supply 
of  potash  nn<l  about  half  as  much  phosphoric  acid  as  the  good 
bean  soil. 

"All  this,  after  all,  is  not  surprising,  when  we  come  to  think 
of  it.  Every  good  farmer  knows  that  a  hard  and  lumpy  soil 
will  not  grow  good  crops,  no  niatter  how  much  plant -food  it 
may  contain.  A  clay  soil  which  has  been  prf)ducing  good  crops 
for  any  number  of  years  may  be  so  seriously  injured  by  one 
injudic-ious  plowing  in  a  wet  time  as  to  ruin  it  for  the  grow- 
ing of  cn>ps  for  two  or  three  years.  The  injury  lies  in  the 
modification  of  its  physical  structure,  not  in  the  lessening  of  its 
plant -food.  A  sandy  soil  may  also  be  seriously  impaired  for 
the  growing  of  any  crop  if  the  humus,  or  decaying  organic 
matter,  is  allowed  to  burn  out  of  it.  It  then  becomes  leachy, 
it  quickly  loses  its  moisture,  nnd  it  becomes  excessively  hot 
in  briirht  sunny  weather.  Similar  rejnnrks  may  be  applied  to 
all  soils.  That  is,  the  texture  ami  sliuetnrr  nr  phi/xiral  condition  nf 
the  soti  is  netirlij  always  more  important  Ihtin  its  mere  richness  in 
plant-food, 

"The  first  step  in  the  enrichment  i>f  unproductive  land  is 
to  improve  its  physical  condition  by  means  of  careful  and 
thorough  tillage,  by  the  addition  of  humus,  nnd,  perhaps,  liy 
under-drainage.  It  must  first  be  put  in  such  condition  that  plants 
can  grow  in  it.  After  that,  the  addition  of  chemical  fertilizers 
may  pay  by  giving  additional   or  redundant  growth." 

53<i.  Head  Chapter  ii.  in  King's  "Soil."  Tho  following  is 
quote<i  fn>m  that  work,  p.  72  :  "Suppose  wo  take  a  marble 
exactly  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  will  just  slip  inside  a  cube 
one  inch  on  a  side,  and  will  hold  n  film  of  water  .'{.14U5  square 
inches  in  area.  But  reduce  the  diametera  of  the  marbles  to  one- 
tenth  of  an  inch,  and  at  least  1,000  of  them  will  l>o  required  to 
fill  the  cubic  inch,  and  their  aggregate  sarfnce  area  will  be 
31,416  square  inches.  If,  howi»ver,  the  diamol<  '  '  '  ,.  s]>heres 
be    n'duced    to    one-hundre«lth    of    an     inch.  of    them 

will    \h>   requin-d    to  make  a  cubic    inch,  '.    surface 

area  will  then  be  314. Ifi  sqimre  inches.  .,  the  soil 

particles   to    have    a   diameter  of   oue-thousnndth  of   an    inch.     It 


44  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  then  require  1,000,000,000  of  them  to  completely  fill  the 
cubic  inch,  while  their  aggregate  surface  area  must  measure 
3141.59    square  inches." 

53b.  Another  illustration  may  be  taken  ("Texture  of  Soil 
and  Conservation  of  Moisture,"  being  a  first  lesson  in  the  Cornell 
farmer's  reading  course):  "Let  us  suppose  the  soil  in  one  of 
your  plowed  fields  is  in  little  lumps  of  the  uniform  size  of  inch 
cubes — that  is,  one  square  inch  on  each  side  of  the  cube.  How 
many  square  inches  of  surface  has  that  cube  exposed  to  root 
contact  and  moisture  film  ?  Now  imagine  that  one  of  these  inch 
cubes  is  broken  up  into  smaller  cubes  measuring  one -eighth  of 
an  inch, — how  many  square  inches  of  surface  will  you  now  have 
exposed  to  root  contact  and  film  moisture  ?  Now  reflect  what 
you  have  done  in  breaking  up  the  inch  cube  of  earth.  The 
amount  of  earth  has  not  been  increased  one  atom  ;  yet,  by  fining 
it,  you  have  increased  just  eight  times  the  root  pasturage  and 
surface  for  water  film.  The  practical  point  of  this  lesson  is  that 
by  superior  tillage  you  can  expand  one  acre  into  eight,  or  by 
neglectful  management  eight  acres  can  be  reduced  to  one.  It 
also  demonstrates  why  a  skillful  farmer  can  produce  as  much 
from  fifty  acres  as  a  careless  one  can  from  four  hundred,  and 
also  confirms  the  assertion  that  success  in  modern  agriculture 
depends  more  on  the  size  of  the  farmer  than  upon  the  size  of 
the  farm." 

53c.  This  hning  or  dividing  of  the  soil,  therefore,  increases 
the  feeding  area  for  roots  ;  or,  as  Jethro  Tull  said,  it  extends 
the  "root  pastiirage."  "The  value  of  simple  tillage  or  fining  of 
the  land  as  a  means  of  increasing  its  productivity  was  first  clearly 
set  forth  in  1733  by  Jethro  Tull,  in  his  'New  Horse  Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry.' The  premises  upon  which  Tull  founded  his  system  are 
erroneous.  He  supposed  that  plant  roots  actually  take  in  or  ab- 
sorb the  fine  particles  of  the  earth,  and,  therefore,  the  finer  and 
more  numerous  these  particles  the  more  luxuriantly  the  plant 
will  grow.  His  system  of  tillage,  however,  was  correct,  and  his 
experiments  and  writings  have  had  a  most  profound  influence. 
If  only  one  book  of  all  the  thousands  which  have  been  written  on 
agriculture  and  rural  affairs  were  to  bo  preserved  to  future  gen- 


THE    T I :  XT  I  UK     ()F     TIIK     SOIL 


45 


orations,  I  should  want  that  honor  conferred  npon  TuU's  'Horse 
Ilofirif*  Iluaiiandni-.'  It  niarkid  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
iipplication  of  seientifiu  methods  to  agriculture,  and  promul{j:ated 
a  system  of  truutment  of  the  land  which,  in  its  essential  princi- 
l>le9,  is  now  accepted  by  every  good  farmer,  and  the  appreciation 
of  which  must  increase  to  the  end  of  time." — Bailnj,  Bull,  ll'.i, 
innutl  Exp.  Sta.     Tull  dird  in   1740. 

57<i.  "The  actual  contour  of  the  water-tnblo  in  an  un<ler- 
drained  field,  where  the  lines  of  tile  are  placed  at  distances  of 
33  feet  and  4  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  is  shown  in 
Ft:'.  K.  w'liili  !.'!%•»>•<  the  contours  ns  they  existed  forty-<iirlit  hi>m»i 


t!.o  n    ••  .il  T'  ■  •..■  r  of  tl.O  w:i;iTt:iI.;o  ill  a  t  il.  -ilr.-iiiM  i|  tli'M 


aittr  a  r:i;iila!i  ot  ..^7  inches.  In  this  case  the  hei^jlit  of  the 
water  midway  between  the  lines  of  tile  varied  from  4  inches  to 
\'l  inches  above  the  tops  of  the  tile." — Kind,   The  Soil,  p.  £5'J. 

88a.  Read  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  pp.  30:j  WVl,  on 
the  physical  efTicts  cf  liming  land  ;  also  "The  Soil,"  p.  30,  and 
Whoelcr's  "Liming  of  Soils,"  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  77,  U.  S. 
I>ept.  Agric.  The  effects  of  lime  in  flocculating  or  mellowing 
••lay  may  be  observed  by  working  up  a  ball  of  stift  clay  with 
■■ommon  water  and  a  similar  ball  with  lime  water  ;  the  former 
will  become  bard  on  drying,  but  the  latti-r  will  readily  fall  to 
pieces.  Lime  water  may  bo  made  by  shaking  up  a  lump  of  lime 
in  n  bottle  of  water. 

CO't.  One  of  the  most  forcible  illustrntions  of  the  value  of 
fine   textnre  of    noil    is   afTorded    by  the    result   which   the   floriMi 


46 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


obtains  in  pots.  He  mixes  and  sifts  his  soils  so  that  it  is  all 
amenable  to  root  action,  and  he  is  able  to  raise  a  larger  plant  from 
a  handful  of  soil  than  the  general  farmer  grows  from  a  half 
bushel.     See  Fig.  9. 


Pig.  9.     Showing  the  possibilities  of  a  potfiil  of  soil. 


Chapter  III 
THE     MOISTIRK     IX    THE    SOIL 

L.  A.   CLISTOS 

1,    Willi  Moisture  Is  Important 

{'A.  However  much  plant-food  there  may  be 
in  the  soil,  plants  cainiot  <;ro\v  without  the 
presence  of  water.  Water  is  n»M'(l»Ml  for  three 
purposes:  to  dissolve  the  ]»laiit-fn(«l  mikI  tlifieby 
enable  it  to  enter  th<»  plant;  to  roiitrihutc  to  the 
building?  of  j)lant  tissue  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
the  life  of  the  plant;  and  to  re^^ulate  tem])erature. 

(\2.  A  consitlrration  of  the  amount  of  wat«'r 
n<iuin'd  hy  plants  in  their  ji'rowth  shows  why 
supplying  i»lant-food  aloin'  d<>«'s  not  insure  the 
success  of  the  crop.  The  amount  of  water  used 
i>y  some  of  thr  common  crops  in  their  develop- 
ment to  maturity  is  aj>proximately  as  follows: 

<Jom        ....  50  bus.  ptT  aoro  requires  1,500,000  lbs.  of  water. 
Po»ato«.«  ...  200  bus.  "  **  l.JiW.OOO  lbs. 

Oats  '2d  bus.         ••  ••  I.IIVJ.OOO  lbs*. 


>).{.    The   failun*  of   crops   is    more   frequently 
due  tn  improper  control  of  moisture  than  to  any 

(47  . 


48  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

other  one  cause.  In  certain  sections  of  the  conn- 
try  irrigation  is  successfully  employed;  but 
most  farmers  must  depend  on  the  rainfall  as  the 
chief  source  for  the  supply  of  moisture. 

2.  Hoiv  Water  Is  Held  in  the  Soil 

64.  The  water  in  the  soil  may  be  in  one  of 
three  forms, — free,  capillaiy,  or  hygroscopic 
water. 

65.  The  free  water  of  the  soil  is  that  which 
flows  under  the  influence  of  gravity.  It  is  this 
water  which  is  removed  in  part  by  drains,  and 
which  is  the  source  of  supply  for  wells  and 
springs.  It  is  not  utilized  directly  by  cultivated 
plants,  but  it  is  valuable  when  removed  a 
proper  distance  from  the  surface,  because  it 
serves  as  a  reservoir  from  which  moisture  may 
be  drawn  by  capillary  action. 

66.  Capillary  water  is  that  which  is  held  by 
adhesion  to  the  soil  particles,  or  in  the  inter- 
stices or  openings  between  the  particles.  It  is 
not  controlled  or  influenced  by  gravity,  but 
passes  from  one  part  of  the  soil  to  another, 
tending  to  keep  the  soil  in  equilibrium  (or  in 
uniform  condition)  so  far  as  its  moisture  is 
concerned.  The  capillary  water  is  the  direct 
supply  for  plants,  and  it  is  this  which  should 
be  naost  carefully  provided  for  and  saved. 


Tin:    Mdismci:    i\    Tin:    soil  4'.i 

()7.  llvi^ro-sc-opic  water  is  that  wliioh  is  held 
firmly  as  a  liliii  surrouiKliii^  each  particle  of 
soil.  It  dtx's  not  movo  nndiM-  tlio  inlluence  of 
gravity  <>r  «'ai»illarity,  and  it  is  held  so  firmly 
that  it  is  driven  o(T  only  when  the  soil  is 
exposed  to  a  temperatnn^  of  '2V2^  Fahr.  Thr 
dryest  road-diist  liriiily  ln>Ids  its  liyi::ros('()pi(' 
watt-r,  and  it  may  constitute  from  -  to  ;;  jicr 
cent  (jr  more  of  the  weight  of  the  soil.  If  u\ 
service  to  plants  in  any  way,  it  is  only  dur- 
ing the  most  excessive  droughts,  in  which  case 
it  may  sustain  the  plants  for  a  time,  until 
ea]>illai-v   wat«M'  is  sui>]ilie(l. 

ti*^.  liolli  rapillary  and  hygroscopic  wati-r  arc 
frecjuently  n-ferred  to  as  "film  moisture,"  froni 
the  fact  that  they  are  hehl  as  a  lilm  of  greater 
or  l.'ss  thickness  around  the  soil  parti(des. 
That  part  which  has  the  most  intimat«'  and 
p  'rmancnt  contact  with  the  j)arti«de  is  the  hygro- 
scoj.ic  water,  and  the  outer  part  of  the  lilm, 
whi<'h  may  move  away  from  the  soil  ])arti«'le,  is 
the  capillary  water.  N  <'ry  wet  land  is  that 
which  contains  to(»  much  free  water  ;  whereas, 
soils  which  are  dryish  and  cnnnMy  usually 
contain  sufficient  water  for  tli<'  growing  ot 
plants.  That  is,  lands  in  good  <'«)ndition  foi 
tiie  growing  of  crops  are  moist,  not  wet;  an«l 
wo  may,  therefore,  speak  of  the  moi.sture  ol  the 
>  >il   rather    than    the  water  of  the  roil 


50  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

69.  The  free  water  of  the  soil  is  found  at 
varying  depths.  Frequently  it  comes  to  the  sur- 
face and  oozes  out  as  springs.  Again  it  is  many 
feet  below  the  surface.  The  supply  is  main- 
tained by  rainfall,  that  part  which  is  not  held 
by  capillary  attraction  or  removed  by  surface 
drainage  passing  down  to  the  level  of  the  free 
water.  In  soils  which  are  very  porous  and 
open,  as  gravelly  soils,  a  large  part  of  the  rain- 
fall passes  down  quickly,  and  such  soils  are 
said  to  be  "leachy."  With  soils  that  are  fine 
and  compact  and  impervious,  as  in  "many  clays, 
the  water  runs  off  by  surface  drainage,  and 
not  only  is  the  supply  of  capillary  water  not 
increased  to  any  perceptible  degree,  but  the 
surface  flowing  removes  valuable  plant -food, 
causes  erosion,  and  increases  dangers  from 
floods.  Under  these  circumstances  rainfall  may 
be   a  detriment. 

3.    Uoiv   the   Moisture- Jioldi rig    Capacity  of  the 
Soil   May   he  Increased 

3rt.    The   capacity    of  the   soil 

70.  The  first  step  toward  utilizing  the  water 
of  the  soil  is  to  so  fit  the  land  that  the  rainfall 
may  be  stored.  In  the  winter  months  a  large 
percentage  of  the  rainfall  is  removed  by  surface 


TMK     MOIsrrKK     I\     TMR     SOIL  51 

•Irainago,  and  in  tlic  snniiiier  niontlis  by  evapo- 
ration. Tlu'  soil  slionld  ho  put  into  sucli  con- 
dition in  tlu»  fall  that  it  can  i-cadily  a))sorl)  tho 
wint'T  rainfall,  if  tlic  surface  is  li;nd,  smooth 
and  conij>act«'d,  us  is  often  the  case  with  ejay 
soils,  it  sliould  be  loosonc^d  witii  the  plow  and 
be  h  ft  roui^h  and  uneven.  If  tliere  is  danixcr  of 
surface  erosion  or  washinij^,  some  (piirk  uenni- 
natinu;  seed  (as  rye  or  p(\'i)  may  be  sown  in 
early  fall.  The  plants  prevent  the  rain  from 
llowin.i^  away  i-ai»idly,  and  the  roots  bind  tiie 
partii'les   of    soil    in    place. 

71.  The  capa<'ity  of  the  soil  to  hold  water 
•  h'pt'nds  upon  its  ori;'inal  constitution  (whether 
clay,  loam,  sainl,  etc.)  and  upon  the  treatment 
which  it  has  receivi'd.  If  tiie  hunnis  or  decay- 
ini?  ori^anic  matter  has  been  depleted,  its  nioi<- 
ture-iiohlinj?  capacity  is  diminished. 

7J.  '{'he  cai>a<Mty  of  the  different  soils  to  hold 
capillary  an<l  hycrroseopic  M-ater  (when  dried  at 
a  temperature  of  144°)  is  siiown  by  the  follow- 
ing-table : 


P*r  etnt  (fe|/  tc fight) 
tj  rnnfMturt  Ketd 

P»r  efiit  (by  rol- 
ume)  kfUl  in 

Pound*  of  ualr r 
in  I  eu  ft 

A'ind  of  $oU 

.'.«'>,< 

of  toil 

■-ilicious  »and 

L'j 

37.U 

27.3 

Sniuly  clay 

40 

51.4 

38.8 

Loamy  clay 

'lip 

57.3 

41.4 

Stiff  brick-cloy 

62.9 

45.4 

TTunins    .    .    . 

-  1 

60. H 

50.1 

Ganlfn  mold 

^!» 

67  :i 

48.4 

52  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

'Sb.    Cajjacity  is  increased  by  the  addition   of  humus 

73.  A  study  of  the  above  table  reveals  the 
fact  that  the  humous  soil  (33)  far  exceeds  any 
of  the  others  in  its  ability  to  hold  moisture. 
By  long- continued  cropping  and  tilling,  without 
making  proper  returns  in  the  way  of  green- 
manures  or  barn -manures,  the  humus  may  be 
so  reduced  that  the  soil  consists  very  largely  of 
mineral  matter.  One  reason  why  newly  cleared 
lands  frequently  give  more  satisfactoiy  returns 
than  lands  which  have  been  long  crojiped, 
is  that  the  fresh  land  is  rich  in  humus.  The 
soil  is  consequently  open  and  porous,  and  the 
rain  which  falls  is  quickly  absorbed,  and  is 
largely  retained  as  capillary  or  hygroscopic 
water. 

74.  The  humus  of  the  soil  may  be  gradually 
increased  by  plowing  under  green- crops,  by  the 
use  of  barn-manures,  by  using  cover-crops 
during  the  late  summer  and  fall  and  plowing 
them  under  in  the  spring  before  they  have 
used  up  the  moisture  which  should  be  saved 
for  the  succeeding  crop.  These  practices  can 
be  overdone,  however,  and  the  soil  made  so 
loose  and  open  that  the  winds  cause  it  to 
dry  out  quickly,  and  the  power  of  drawing 
moisture  from  the  stores  of  free  water  will  be 
greatly   lessened. 


TiiK    MoismcK    IN    Tin:    SOIL  53 

-ic.    Ciip'icitij    nniij    In    iiirnasnl   hi/    innh  r -drainage 

7.').  I)i-ainiiLr»>  has  an  intiniatf  relation  \o  soil 
moistun'.  iJy  <li'aiiiau'»'  is  im-anl  tin'  means 
t'ini)l<>yt'(l  lor  the  I'enioval  of  tho  surplus  IVee 
water.  Surface  or  open  <liteiies  may  serve  as 
eon<hiits  to  carry  otT  surface  water,  hut  as  soil 
•  h*ains  they  ari'  failures.  The  correct  method 
for  removinu:  the  surplus  water  of  i-ainfall  is  to 
cause  it  to  sink  into  the  soil  ami  he  removed 
hy  under-druins.  That  wiiich  is  removed  i»y 
surface  (low  tails  to  inijiart  any  heiifliria!  etfect 
t<»    the    soil    ((i;>). 

7ti.  Lamls  which  are  well  undei--.lraiiied  art- 
porous.  The  i-ain  whieh  falN  upon  tlieni  jtasses 
ilown  ipiickly,  and  is  not  removed  hy  surface 
tlow.  It  is  remov«'d  only  when  the  level  of  the 
free  wat«'r  risos  to  the  level  of  the  diain.  iJy 
•>l)servi!i,<^  the  action  of  drains  which  are  of  dif- 
ferent <lej)ths,  it  has  heen  foun<l  that  after  a 
protracted  droui^ht  the  drains  whi<di  hci^in  to 
ll  »w  lir>t  are  those  whieh  are  at  the  jxrcatest 
depth,  showlni;  that  as  the  level  of  the  free 
water  rises  to  the  chain  the  flow  heirins,  an<l 
that  it  is  not  removed  to  any  considerahle  ex- 
tent   in    its   downward    passap'. 

77.  The  sinkinir  of  the  water  thromrh  the  soil 
does  more  pood  than  m«'re|y  to  supply  moisture. 
In  the  s]>ring  the  rain  is  warmer  than  the   soil, 


54  THE    PEINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  in  passing  down  it  gives  up  some  of  its 
heat,  and  the  soil  temperature  is  thereby  raised. 
In  the  summer  the  rain  is  the  cooler,  and  the 
soil  parts  with  some  of  its  heat.  On  lands 
which  have  been  thoroughly  under- drained,  crops 
are  far  better  able  to  withstand  drought  than 
those  on  land  which  needs  drainage. 

78.  Few  cultivated  plants  can  thrive  with 
their  roots  in  free  water.  When  the  free  water 
is  near  the  surface,  it  is  injurious  in  several 
ways  :  it  limits  the  feeding  space  ;  it  makes  the 
soil  cold  in  spring  ;  it  occupies  the  space  which 
should  be  filled  with  air  ;  it  causes  plant-food  to 
be  locked  up  ;  it  dilutes  the  plant -food  in  solu- 
tion; it  prevents  the  action  of  micro-organisms; 
it  causes  the  rainfall  to  be  carried  off  largely  by 
surface  drainage.  Thorough  under- drainage  tends 
to  remove  all  these  unfavorable  conditions.  If 
there  is  no  effective  under- drainage,  either  by 
natural  or  artificial  channels,  the  water  must 
escape    by  surface  evaporation. 

Sd.   The  capacity  is  increased  hij  proper  tillage 

79.  Tillage  enables  soils  to  hold  moisture  by 
two  means  :  by  increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil 
in  which  the  plants  can  grow  (that  is,  by  in- 
creasing the  depth  of  the  reservoir),  and  by 
Increasing   the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.     We 


THE     MOISTURF     IN     THE    SOIL  55 

have  already  seen  (57,  75-78)  that  draining  in- 
cn^ases  tlu'  (h^jtth  of  the  soil  ;  so  do«^s  dtH'j>  plow- 
ing. I'apillarity  is  incroasod  hy  lincly  dividing 
or  pulverizing  the  snii. 

S(i.  Incn'asing  the  capillarity  increases  the 
inoisturL'-holding  capacity  of  soils  in  two  ways  : 
it  enables  the  soil  to  actually  hold  more  inois- 
tiir<'  jt'T  square  inch  ;  it  enables  it  to  draw 
up  ninisturc  from  the  free  water  of  the  lowei- 
subsoil    (t ).')). 

SI.  I5y  the  action  of  cajtillary  attraction, 
moisture  moves  from  one  layer  of  soil  to  another 
(()«)),  usually  from  the  lower  to  the  u]>per,  to 
»nj>j>ly  the  place  of  that  whi<'h  has  Ixmmi  used 
by  plants,  or  which  has  been  lost  by  ev;i]»oia- 
tjoii.  The  rapidity  of  movement  and  the  force 
.with  which  it  is  held  depend  ujion  various 
<M)nditions.  A  soil  in  whicli  \\\r  particles  are 
soniewhat  large,  as  in  sandy  or  gravelly  soils, 
may,  if  well  compa<'ted,  show  «'onsiderable  ra- 
pidity of  movement,  but  weak  jiower  to  retain 
moisture.  The  tiner  the  division  <»f  the  soil 
particles  the  greater  is  the  surface  presented. 
In  linely  divid«'d  clay  soils,  the  movement  of 
capillary  water  is  slow  but  the  retaining  power 
is  great.  Occasionally  it  happens  that  the  par- 
ticles are  so  fine  that  the  spaces  ilisappeai-,  and 
there  is  produced  a  condition  through  which 
moisture    and    air    cannot    pass.      This    state   of 


56  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

affairs  is  produced  when  clay  soils  are  "puddled." 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  soils  which  are 
either  very  loose  or  exceedingly  finely  pulverized 
are  not  in  the  best  condition  for  the  holding  of 
moisture  ;  but  the  danger  of  over -pulverizing  is 
very  small. 

4.    The    Conservation    of  Moisture 

82.  By  conservation  of  moisture  is  meant 
the  prevention  of  all  unnecessary  waste  of  the 
capillary  water  of  the  soil,  either  through  weeds 
or  by  evaporation.  It  is  the  saving  and  utiliz- 
ing of  moisture.  The  object  is  to  make  the 
water  which  seeks  to  escape  from  the  surface 
pass  through  the  cultivated  plants.  Plants  re- 
quire that  their  food  be  in  solution.  The 
moisture  of  the  soil  contains  f)^^^t-food  in 
solution.  If  this  moisture  is  permitted  to 
escape  from  the  surface  by  evaporation,  it 
leaves  the  plant- food  at  the  surface.  This  food 
cannot  nourish  plants,  because  it  is  out  of  the 
lange  of  their  feeding  roots.  If  the  escape  of 
the  moisture  is  through  the  plants,  there  is 
created  a  moisture  current  towards  the  roots, 
and  the  plant- food  is  carried  where  it"  can  be 
used   to   advantage. 

83.  Moisture  rapidly  rises  to  the  surface 
by  capillarity,  to  replace   that  which   has  evapo- 


THK     MOISTURE     IN     THE     SOIL  57 

ratod  or  lias  been  used  l>y  j>laiits,  if  the  soil  is 
in  prop*'!'  physical  coiidition.  Moasuros  sliould 
bo  adopted  to  ])nn*('nt  this  nioistiiro  from  bo- 
iiii;  lost  by  <'vaj>oration.  Tln'  most  jiractical 
and  otT»M'tivo  method  is  by  establishiiiir  and 
maintaininij:    a    snrface    mulch    of    soil.      By    frc- 

•  jucnt  use  of  imi>lcmcnts  of  tilla.ij:c,  which  loosen 
tho  soil  to  u  d»'j)tli  of  two  or  thi-ee  inches,  this 
nuih-h  may  be  preserved  and  the  moisture 
saved.  The  dri»'r  and  looser  this  nuilch,  the 
more  effective  it  is.  This  diy  and  loose  surfaet- 
breaks  the  capillarv  connection  between  the  ;iii- 
an<l  the  moist  under-soil,  and  has  the  elTect  of 
inttM'posinii:  a  foreiirn  body  between  the  atmos- 
phere and  the  eailh.  A  lioai'd  or  a  blanket 
laid  on  the  earth  has  the  same  etYect,  and  the 
soil  is  moist  In-neath  it.  This  soil-mulch  should 
be  renewed,  or  repaired,  in  the  u:rowini^  season, 
as  often  as  it  l)eeomes  haid  '>i-  baked,  by  means 
of  shallow  tillaire. 

aroaxiiT/oys  (>.v  cum'tkh  hi 

62<;.  To  show  that  (frowinff  pIniitH  nn-  i-onHtantly  f^vinfi:  off 
l*r(f<«  qtmntifi«'H  of  wator  throujjh  tlu-ir  foliage,  (jrow  ••orn,  beaiiH 
or  sqiiashfs  in  rich  «oil  in  a  (lower- p<»t.  Over  the  aoil  in  tlio  pot 
Hhoiilil  be  i)Iar»'<l  a  rubbor  or  oiltni  cloth  covering,  bo  that  no 
moisture  can  como  from  this  source.     Then  over  the  plant  place 

•  glass  bell-jar  or  a  common  fruit -jar,  and  notice  how  rapiillv 
the  moisture  colli«ot«  on  the  interior  of  the  jar  (Fip.  101.  Thi»t 
•xperiment  may  be  conducttMl  even  better  in  the  field. 


58 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 


63a.  Irrigation  is  of  primary  value,  of  course,  in  all  arid  coun- 
tries; but  as  eoiuplete  systems  of  land  culture  develop,  it  must  be 
employed  also  in  countries  of  free  rainfall  in  order  to  tiile  over 
periods  of  droujjbtand  to  enable  the  husbandman  to  control  hispon- 
ditions.  Irrigation  will  come  more  and  more  to  be  a  truly  national 
problem. 

66a.  Capillary  action,  or  capillarity,  is  due  to  the  attraction 
of    matter  for   mattet.     Capillary   attraction    is   that   force  which 


Fig.  10.     How  to  show  that  plants  give 
off  moisture. 


Fig.  11.    To  determine  liow  much 
water  a  soil  can  hold. 


causes  a  liquid  to  ascend  or  descend  or  move  laterally  through 
very  small  openings  or  tubes,  or  the  interstices  between  fine  par- 
ticles of  solid  matter,  or  by  which  it  is  held  to  the  surface  of  the 
particles  themselves.  The  teacher  should  illustrate  capillarity  by 
the  familiar  experiment  of  standing  tubes  of  glass  in  water.  The 
smaller  the  bore  of  the  tube,  the  higher  the  water  rises.  The  oil 
rises  in  the  wick  by  means  of  capillarity.     The  principle  may  be 


THE     MOISTIRK     IN     THK     SOIL  .V.) 

illustrated  liy  filling  straight  (or  artfand)  lamp  chiiuiK'ys  with 
lumpuctfil  dry  soil  and  standing  thfui  in  a  dish  of  wati-r. 

GS'i.  Film  moisture  <'an  ho  inustratt-d  by  dippinir  ii  niarhlu 
into  water  and  observing  tho  skin  or  film  of  moisfnro  adhering  to 
nil  sides.  The  most  satisfactory  conditions  of  soil  moisture  exist 
when  ••aeh  soil  grain  is  covered  by  a  film  of  wati-r.  The  char- 
acter of  film  moisture  is  changed  by  the  thickness  of  the  film. 
The  thicker  the  film,  the  less  the  tension  to  the  body,  until 
it  becomes  so  thick  as  to  separate  from  that  boily  and  become  a 
drop  of  water  ;  and  it  is  then  subject  to  tho  law  of  gravitation, 
and  can  travel  but  in  one  direction — downward.  While  in  a  state 
of  film  moisture,  it  is  amenable  to  the  law  of  ••apillary  attraction, 
and  can  move  in  any  direction,  which  means  that  it  goes  towards 
the  thinnest  films.  The  readiness  with  which  water  films  travel 
can  be  sei'U  by  dipping  a  piece  of  cube  sugar  into  coffee  and 
obser>'ing  how  quickly  the  liquid  pervades  the  lump  of  sugar. 
That  soil  moisture  may  move  with  the  same  facility  as  the 
coffee  does  in  the  sugar,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  soil  grains 
in  proper  touch  one  witli  another; — not  so  far  apart  but  thai 
the  water  films  can  rea«di  one  to  the  other,  not  so  close  as  t<> 
impede  the  progrehs  of  the  films.  The  two  ettremes  in  soil  can 
t'e  gt<en  in  loose  giavel  and  h.ird  day. 

70rt.  By  rainf.all  is  meant  precipitation, — the  fall  of  water  in 
my  form,  as  in  niin,  snow  and  hail. 

T2a.  That  different  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  t<>  hold 
iiioiHturv  may  t>e  illustrated  by  the  following  experiment  :  Pro- 
vide seveml  flower- pots  of  the  same  size  and  shape.  The  va- 
rmus  Roils  should  be  thoroughly  dried  in  an  oven.  At  least 
four  kinds  of  soil  should  bo  tested:  gravel,  sand,  clay,  and  gar- 
den loam.  Place  an  equal  weight  of  each  soil  in  the  pots. 
'm|  one  of  the  pots  from  a  common  spring-scales  (Fig.  11). 
the  numlH>r  of  pounds  and  ounces  registered.  Now 
-nwiy  pour  water  U|H)n  the  soil  until  it  is  thoroughly  saturated. 
<  over  with  a  piin-e  ot  oiled  cloth  or  oiled  paper,  and  allow  it 
••>  drain  until  no  more  water  will  How  from  it.  Th«'  water 
Ahicb  dr«ins  from  tho  |K)t  Is  the  free  water.  The  tlifference  in 
^v  eight  of  the  |>ot  of  noil  before  aoaking,  and  after  tho  drainage, 
shows  the  amount  of  water  held  by  capillarity. 


60 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 


74a.    The     plowing    uuder    of    green- crops    sometimes    gives 
unsatisfactory  results.     If  a  heavy  growth  is  plowed  under  when 


the    soil    does    not    contain 


^': 
^X> 


^ 


Pig.  12.     The  layer  {a  d)  of  unde- 
eomposed  herbage. 


sufficient  moisture  to  cause  ready 
decomposition,  this  layer  of  foreign 
matter  prevents  the  passage  of 
the  water  from  the  subsoil  to  the 
surface  soil  (Fig.  12).  The  crop 
which  is  then  planted  must  nec- 
essarily feed  for  some  time  in  the 

f)  surface  soil,  and  in  case  of  pro- 
longed drought  a  partial  or  com- 
plete failure  of  the  crop  may  re- 
sult. Heavy  growths  of  cover- 
crops,  as  well  as  coarse,  strawy 
manures,  should  be  plowed  under 
when  there  is  sufficient  moisture 
in  the  soil  to  cause  decomposition. 
In  case  it  is  necessary  to  plow 
them  under  when  the  soil  is  dry, 
a  heavy  roller  will  so  compact  the 

in   part   restored  and   decomposition 


soil   that   capillarity   will 
hastened. 

75a.  While  surface  drains  are  to  be  avoided,  yet  it  frequently 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  a  conduit  or  open  ditch  into  which 
tile  drains  may  open,  or  to  remove  flood  water.  It  is  a  common 
error  to  have  the  banks  too  vertical.  Through  the  action  of  frost  or 
the  tramping  of  stock,  the  banks  are  constantly  requiring  atten- 
tion. The  ditch  should  be  wide,  and  the  banks  should  have  a 
gradual  slope,  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  13.  Grass-seed  should  be 
sown  over  the  sides  and  bottom,  so  that  the  sod  will  prevent 
washing.  One  can  drive  across  such  a  ditch.  When  possible, 
this  ditch  would  be  made  the  boundary  of  a  field,  or  be  placed 
near  a  fence. 

76a.  The  depth  at  which  tile  drains  should  be  placed  must  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  very  compact  and 
impervious  soils,  as  clay,  the  drains  must  be  closer  together  and 
nearer  the   surface   than   in   porous   soils.     Land   may  become  so 


TMK     MOlSirKK     IN     THK     SOIL 


()1 


hftnl  upon  the  Hiirfiioi'  that  tin*  water  of  riiiiifall  iievtT  can  pUHH 
<lu\vn.  By  placing  th<«  drains  t>liallo\v,  the  soil  is  rendfri*«l  nicllow 
and  p<irous,  water  passes  down  readily,  the  level  of  free  water  is 
raised,  and  the  surplus  is  removed. 

7G/>.    Tile  distanee  apart  at   whicli  drains  should   l.e   placed   is 
varialde,    l>ut    HO  feet  is  usually  eonsidercd  most   advisalijc.     The 


FiK   I'      !• 


■  Ic  i>|«"ii  (litph. 


level  of  the  free  water  tends  to  rise  higher  at  a  point  midway 
between  drains,  as  shown  in  Ki^.  8.  If  the  drains  are  tot.  far 
apart,  this  tendency  may  l>e  jjreater  than  the  tendency  to  move 
toward  the  drain.  In  soils  through  which  the  water  moves  some- 
what readily,  the  tirains  may  be  farther  lemoved  than  in  close, 
impervious  soils. 

7S<i.    In   the  sprint;,    on    tnidrained   soils,    free   water    remains 
for  a  considerable  time  near  the  surface:   consequently  the  plant 


Vxu    1 1      SliteK  IfNj  Dle^p. 


roots  cannot  penetrate  deeply  into  the  soil.  When  the  droupht 
conns  the  surface  is  fii-'*t  afTt«cte<l,  and  the  plants  suffer  at  once. 
It  is  n  well-known  fact  that  tap-rooted  plants  are  admimbly 
fitted  to  withstand  «lr>-  weather.  Their  feetlers  are  deep  in  the 
soil.  It  is  this  condition  which  is  obtained  to  n  certain  extent  liy 
underdrninnjfi-.  The  soil  a>>ove  the  drain  is  made  porous,  the 
wafer  which  cannot  W  held  by  capillarity  is  quickly  removed,  the 
air    penetrates,     the    s«>il    becomes    warm    and    oonirenim         Fhiis 


Mw¥m 


Fig.  15.  Showing  the  coiiditiou  wliieh 
prevails  in  spring  on  co]J,  undrained 
soils, — when  the  water-table  is  too 
high. 


^"^^f^j^^^^^A^^  :v<i 


Fig.  16.  When  the  drought  comes, 
the  plant  is  still  shallow-rooted, 
and  it  siiffers. 


Fig.  17.     On  well-drained  soils,  the 
roots  strike  downwards. 


Fig  IS.     When  the  drought  comes, 
the  plant  does  not  suffer. 


THK     MOISTfKK     IS     THK     SOIL 


n:^ 


plants  nre  enabled  early  in  their  growih  to  semi  their  roots  down, 
and  wlun  drought  comes  they  are  not  seriously  injured.  Figs. 
15  IS  illustrate  this. 

7y<i.  The  soil  resorvoir  may  be  understood  by  likening  it  to 
a  pan.  A  two-ineh  rainfall  fills  an  inch-deep  pan  and  runs  it 
over  ;  but  if  the  depth  is  inereased  to  two  inches,  none  of  the 
rain  escapes.  The  hard-pan  or  water-table  is  the  bottom  of  thu 
soil  reservoir.  If  this  bottom  is  within  a  few  inches  of  the  sur- 
face, the  ordinary  rainfalls  fill  the  soil  so  full  that  it  is  muddy, 
and  some  of  the  water  may  be  lost  by  surface  washing.  Deep 
plowing  lowers  the  bottom  of  the  reservoir,  an<l  the  soil  holds 
more  water  and   yet  remains  ilrier. 

81(1.  Tillage  operations  should  vary  acconling  to  the  nature 
of  the  soil.  Those  soils  which- are  loose  and  porous  should  be 
compacted  after  plowing,  so  that  the  capillary  connection  may 
Ikj  ri'Stored  between  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.  The  roller 
may  be  usetl.  With  finely  divided  soils,  which  have  a  tendency 
to  become  t«M)  compact,  only  so  much  tillage  should  bo  given  as 
is  necessar)'  to  produce  the  proper  degree  of  pulverization.  It  is 
possible  to  so  compact  and  fine  some  soils,  as  clays,  that  the 
spaces  between  the  soil  particles  is  filled,  and  a  condition  is 
pro<luced  which  prevents  the  rise  of  moisture  by  capillarity,  an<l 
also  prevents  the  absorption  of  rainfall   and   the  passage  of  air. 

B\h.  Of  general  farm  crops,  a)>oiit  three  himdred  pounds  of 
water  is  used  in  the  production  of  one  pound  of  dry  matter  .\n 
inch  of  rainfall  weighs,  approxim.itely,  one  htmdred  and  thirteen 
and  one-half  tons  to  the  acre.  The  student  will  discover  that 
the  rainfall  of  the  growing  months  may  not  bo  sufficient  to  supply 
the  crop  ;  hence  the  necessity  of  saving  the  rainfall  of  winter 
and  spring. 

83a.  On  the  general  subject  of  soil  moisture  and  its  conser- 
Tation,  read  Chaps,  v.  and  vi.  in  Kintr's  "Soil."  and  Phnp.  iv.  in 
U-.l/erft'  "Fertility  of  the  Land."  Also  consult  publications  of 
the  Ktperimeiit  Stations  and  l'.  S.  I)epnrtmeiit  of  .Airriculture; 
anil  part  3  in  Vol.  [  of  ('v.-iopedia  of  .Vmerican  Agriculture  ;  also 
the  recent   loil   books  of  Ililirnr-l.  nml   of  Lvon  ami   Fiiit«iii. 


Chapter   IV 

THE    TILLAGE    OF    THE    SOIL 

1.    What   Tillage  Is 

84.  We  have  found  (52,  79)  that  tillage  is 
one  of  the  means  of  improving  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil.  By  tillage  is  meant  the  stir- 
ring of  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating 
the  growth  of  plants. 

85.  We  may  divide  tillage  into  two  general 
kinds, — tillage  which  covers  the  entire  ground, 
and  tillage  which  covers  only  that  part  of  the 
ground  which  lies  between  the  plants.  The 
former  we  may  call  open  or  general  tillage,  and 
the  latter  inter- tillage.  We  practice  open  tillage 
before  the  seed  is  sown :  it  •  therefore  prepares 
the  land  for  the  crop.  We  practice  inter-tillage 
in  fruit  j^lantations  and  between  the  rows  of 
crops :  it  therefore  maintains  the  condition  of 
the   soil. 

86.  We  may  also  speak  of  tillage  as  deep  or 
shallow.  In  a  general  way,  tillage  is  deep  when 
it  extends  more  than  six  inches  into  the  ground. 
We    also    speak    of    surface     tillage,    when    the 

(64) 


THK     TILLA(fK     OK     THK     SOIL 


65 


stirring    is    eonlineil    to    the    one,    two    or    three 
ui)p»'rniost  inches  of  the  soil. 


'J.    What    'rUltif/c   Does 

ST.  Tilhi,«,'(»  iiuprovfs  the  physical  condition  of 
tli«'  soil  :  Ity  lininjj:  the  soil  and  cxtendini^  the 
feeding  area  for  roots  (53) ;  by  increasing  the 
dcptli  of  the  soil,  or  loosening  it,  so  that  j)lTints 
obtain  a  deeper  root-hold  ;  l>y  <'aasiiig  the  soil 
to  dry  out  and  warm  up  in  sjiriiiu'  ;  by  mak- 
ing the  conditions  of  moistui't'  and  temperature 
nion*  uniform  throughout  the  growing  season. 

SS.  It  aids  in  tlie  saving  of  moisture:  l)y 
increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  soil, 
or  deepening  tlie  reservoir  (7!));  by  checking  the 
evaporation  (or  <'onserving,  or  saving,  moisture) 
by  means  of  the  surface-nudch  (SI)).  The  for- 
mer is  th«'  result  of  deep  tillagt',  as  deep  plow- 
iuLT,   and  the  latter  of  surface  tillage. 

Sl>.  It  hastens  and  augments  chemi<al  act  inn 
in  the  soil :  by  aiding  to  s(»t  free  j)lant-food  ;  by 
promoting  nitrification  (Chap,  vi.);  by  admitting 
air  to  the  soil  ;  by  lessening  extremes  of  tempera- 
tiu'e  ;  l»y  hastening  tlie  decomp<)siti<»n  of  organic 
matter,  as  of  gre«Mi-erops  or  stable  manures 
which  are  plowe<l  under;  by  extendini^  all  these 
benelits  to  greater  depths  in  the  soil.  In  a  very 
important  sense,  tillage  is  manure. 


66  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

3.  How  Tillage  Is  Performed 

Sa.  By  deep -working  tools 

90.  Plowing.  We  plow  (a)  to  get  the  land 
in  fit  condition  for  planting,  (h)  to  pulverize  the 
soil,  (c)  to  turn  under  manures,  green-crops, 
and  trash,  (d)  to  deepen  the  soil,  and  thereby 
increase  its  storage  capacity  for  water  and  ex- 
tend the  root  pasturage,  (e)  to  break  up  or  to 
form  a  hard-pan,  (/)  to  warm  and  dry  the  land, 
(g)  to  allow  the  weather  to  act  on  the  soil. 
Passing  over  the  first  subject  (a),  we  may  ex- 
plain the  remaining  objects  of  plowing. 

91.  {!))  Plowing  is  the  most  efficient  means 
of  pulverizing  the  soil.  That  is,  it  is  not  enough 
that  the  soil  be  inverted  :  it  must  be  ground 
and  broken.  For  purposes  of  pulverization, 
the  shape  of  the  plow  should  be  such  as  to 
twist  the  furrow -slice,  causing  it  to  break  and 
crumble  as  it  falls.  The  moldboard,  therefore, 
should  have  a  sharp,  bold  outward  curve  at  its 
upper  extremity  ;  and  the  fui-row-slice  should  be 
left  in  an  inclined,  or  even  nearly  perpendicular 
position,  rather  than  turned  over  flat. 

92.  (c)  Since  it  is  important  that  organic 
matter,  as  manures,  shall  quickly  decay  when 
turned  under,  the  plowing  should  be  done  when 
the  season  is  moist,  as  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


THE     TILLAiii;     OF     THi:     SOIL  67 

Clover  aiiil  rv(^  aiv  aUo  apt  to  become  too  liaid 
anil  ilrv  if  allowed  to  grow  to  maturity.  Ilerb- 
««;»'  which  (Iocs  not  d<H'ay  quickly  wlieu  jiiowcd 
d(»wii  may  seriously  injure  the  crop  t'«)r  that 
•-'•ason  (74f/).  ]*'<>r  the  coveriutr  <'t'  herbap:e,  the 
furrow  sliould  be  broa*!  and  dee}>  ;  and  if  the 
land  is  to  be  surface- tilled  shortly  after  the 
plowing,  care  should  be  taken  that  the  furrow- 
slice  turns  down  lalher  Hat,  so  as  to  completely 
cover  the  plants, 

I'.*>.  [tl)  The  deeper  the  plowing,  the  greater 
the  water-storage  reservoir  will  he,  other  things 
being  eijual;  but  the  plowing  nuiy  be  so  very 
deep  as  t<^  bring  the  unproductive  subsoil  to  the 
surfa«  e,  in  wliich  case  the  increase  of  storage 
capaeity  may  be  overbulance*!  by  the  loss  of 
available  fertility.  On  most  soils  and  for  most 
erops,  eight  or  nin»»  inches  is  a  suflicient  depth 
for  the  plow.  Shallow  soils  are  both  too  dry  and 
too  wet.  They  are  too  dry,  because  much  of  the 
rai!ifall  is  lost  in  surface  drainage  or  by  very 
rapid  evaporation.  They  are  too  wet  after  every 
haitl  rain,  because  the  water  is  held  near  the 
surface  (TOrt). 

•J4.  ((')  If  i.i  hard-pan  is  near  the  surface, 
deep  plowing  will  break  it  up,  although  the 
most  permanent  remedy  nniy  be  undcr-drainago. 
In  very  porous  soils,  however,  it  may  l»e  neces- 
sary  to    form   a    hard-pan    in    order    to    prevent 


68  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

leaching.  This  is  done  by  plowing  at  the  same 
depth  each  year,  so  that  the  land  becomes  com- 
pacted under  the  furrow.  Loose  and  sandy  lands 
may  need  shallow  plowing  rather  than  deep 
plowing. 

95.  (/')  Land  which  is  turned  up  loose  soon 
dries  out,  because  so  much  surface  is  exposed  to 
the  air.  In  spring,  it  is  often  necessary  to  make 
lands  warm  and  dry,  especially  if  such, crops  as 
corn  and  potatoes  and  cotton  are  to  be  planted; 
and  this  is  done  by  very  early  plowing.  The 
slices  should  not  be  turned  down  flat,  but 
allowed  to  lie  up  loose  and  broken,  and  the 
harrow  should  not  be  used  until  the  soil  begins 
to  be  dry  and  crumbly.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  plow  clay  lands  when  wet,  however,  else 
they  become  lumpy  and  unmanageable. 

96.  {g)  Freezing  and  thawing  often  pulverize 
and  improve  heavy  lands,  particularly  clays. 
Fall  plowing,  therefore,  may  be  advisable  on 
lands  which  tend  to  remain  lumpy.  The  results 
are  best  when  the  furrow-slices  are  left  in  a  per- 
pendicular position  (as  in  Fig.  21),  and  when 
the  harrow  is  not  used  until  the  following  spring. 
Heavy  clays  tend  to  puddle  (81)  or  to  cement 
together  if  fall  plowed,  but  the  danger  is  least 
when  there  is  herbage  (as  heavy  sod  or  stubble) 
or  manure  on  the  land  before  it  is  plowed. 

97.  Subsoiling.     When  it  is   desired  to  loosen 


TIIK     TILLAGE     OF    THE     SOIL  69 

or  pulverize  the  lain  I  to  a  ,:rr<'at  depth,  tlie  sub- 
soil plow  is  run  in  tlio  furrow  behind  the  ordi- 
nary i»low.  Subsoilinjj:  provides  a  deeper  bed 
for  n^ots,  breaks  uj)  tlie  Juii-d-pan,  and  (b'ies  the 
^oil.  More  pcrnianeiit  results  an*  usually  ob- 
taiue<l   by  thorou«;h  undrr-drainage. 

Ah.    liij   siirfitrt  •irin'knui   tools 

98.  Tilla^ire  by  means  of  surfaee-working 
tools — as  hoes,  rakes,  eultivat(U"s,  harrows,  clod- 
i-rushers — has  the  f<>llo\vin.i,'  objects:  {(i)  to 
make  a  bed  in  which  seeds  can  be  sown  or  jdauts 
set,  (b)  to  cover  the  seeds,  (r)  to  jmlverize  the 
ground,  (d)  to  establish  and  maintain  an  eai'th- 
muleh,  (e)  to  destroy  weeds.  Aside  from  these 
speeifie  benefits,  surface  tillap-  contributes  to 
the  general  betterment  of  soil  conditions,  as 
outlined  in  87,  HS,  89. 

!>!*.  In  nuikini,'  the  earth-nuilch  (the  im- 
portance of  whi<'h  as  a  saver  ni'  moisture  is 
fully  explained  in  82,  8.'J),  the  other  obj«»cts  of 
surfaci'  tillage  are  also  secured  ;  therefore  we 
may  eonfme  our  attention  to  the  earth-mulch  foi- 
the  present.  The  mulch  is  made  by  shallow 
tdlage — about  three  inches  deep.  In  field  coiidi- 
uons — before  the  seeds  are  sown.  The  first  til- 
lair«'  after  plowing  is  usually  with  a  heavy  and 
coarse   tool, — us  a  clod-crusher,  cutaway  harrow, 


70  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

or  spring- tooth  harrow, — and  its  object  is  pulver- 
ization of  the  ground.  The  finishing  is  done 
with  a  small-toothed  and  lighter  harrow ;  and 
this  finishing  provides  the  jeed-bed  and  the  soil- 
mulch. 

100.  The  earth-mulch  is  destroyed  by  rains  : 
the  ground  becomes  baked.  But  even  in  dry 
times  it  becomes  compact,  and  capillarity  is 
restored  between  the  under- soil  and  the  air. 
Therefore,  the  mulch  must  be  maintained  or  re- 
paired. That  is,  the  harrow  or  cultivator  must 
be  used  as  often  as  the  ground  becomes  hard, 
particularly  after  every  rain.  In  dry  times,  this 
surface  tillage  should  usually  be  repeated  every 
ten  days, — oftener  or  less  often  as  the  judgment 
of  the  farmer  may  dictate.  The  drier  the  time 
and  the  country,  the  greater  the  necessity  for 
maintainmg  the  soil-mulch  ;  but  the  mulch  is  of 
comparatively  little  effect  in  a  dry  time  if  the 
soil  moisture  was  allowed  to  evaporate  earlier 
in  the  season. 

101.  Surface  tillage  is  usually  looked  upon 
only  as  a  means  of  killing  weeds,  but  we  now  see 
that  we  should  till  for  tillage's  sake, — to  make 
the  land  more  productive.  If  tillage  is  frequent 
and  thorough — if  the  soil -mulch  is  maintained — 
weeds  cannot  obtain  a  start ;  and  this  is  the 
ideal  and  profitable  condition,  to  which,  however, 
there  may  be  exceptions. 


THE     TILLAGE     OF     THE     SOIL  71 

3c.    B[i  compact inij  tools 

lOJ.  Th»>  ('< impacting  tools  are  rollers,  an<l 
tlit>  implements  known  as  plankers  or  floats. 
The  objects  of  rolling  are  :  {a)  to  crush  clods, 
(//)  to  snioothen  the  ground  for  the  seed-bed, 
{(')  to  hasten  germination  of  seeds,  (d)  to  com- 
part and  solitlify  soils  which  are  otherwise  too 
loose  and  open,  (c)  to  jiut  the  land  in  such 
condition  that  other  tools  can  act  efficiently, 
if)  to  facilitate  the  marking-out  of  land. 

103.  By  compacting  the  surface  soil,  the 
roller  re-establishes  the  capillary  connection  be- 
tween the  under-soil  and  the  air :  that  is,  it 
destroys  the  earth-nmlch.  In  its  passage  u}>- 
wanls,  the  soil  moisture  supj)lies  the  seeds  with 
water ;  and  the  particles  of  the  soil  are  in 
intimate  contact  with  the  seeds,  and,  therefore, 
with  the  soil  moisture.  It"  the  smt'ace  of  rolled 
lands  is  moister  than  loose-tilled  lands,  there- 
fore, it  is  be«'ause  the  moisture  is  ]»assing  otT  into 
the  air  and  is  l)eing  lost. 

1(>4.  The  rolling  of  lands,  then,  sacrifices 
soil  moisture.  The  rolled  or  compacted  surface 
should  not  be  allowed  to  remain,  but  tlie  earth- 
rauleh  should  be  quickly  restored,  to  prevent 
evaporation,  particularly  in  dry  weather.  When 
the  object  of  rolling  is  to  hasten  germination, 
however,  the   surface   cannot    be  tilled   at  once  ; 


72  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

but  if  the  seed  is  in  rows  or  hills,  as  maize  or 
garden  vegetables,  tillage  should  begin  as  soon 
8S  the  plants  have  appeared. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON   CHAPTEB  IV 

84a.  Tillage  is  a  specific  or  special  word,  and  is  much  better 
than  the  more  general  word  culture,  when  one  is  speaking  of  the 
stirring  of  the  soil.  The  culture  of  a  crop  properly  comprises 
tillage,  pruning,  fertilizing,  and  other  good  care. 

85o.  For  the  oi-igin  of  the  word  inter-tillage,  see  foot-note  in 
Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  p.  69. 

88a.  It  should  be  observed  that  surface  tillage  saves  moisture 
by  preventing  evaporation,  not,  as  commonly  supposed,  by  caus- 
ing the  soil  to  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  When 
moisture  is  most  needed,  is  the  season  in  which  the  air  is  dryer 
than  the  soil. 

89a.  To  illustrate  the  importance  of  air,  select  a  thrifty 
plant,  other  than  aquatic  plant,  growing  in  a  florist's  pot,  and 
exclude  all  the  air  by  keeping  the  soil  saturated  with  water,  or 
even  by  keeping  the  bott(jm  of  the  plant  standiug  deep  in  water, 
and  note  the  checking  of  growth,  and,  in  time,  the  decline  of  the 
plant.  The  remarks  on  draining  (65,  78)  show  how  undrained 
soils  are  often  saturated  with  water  ;  and  no  matter  how  much 
raw  material  for  plant-food  may  exist  in  such  a  soil,  it  is  un- 
available to  the  plant.  The  reader  can  now  guess  why  crops  are 
poor  and  yellow  on  flat  lands  in  wet  seasons.  On  the  importance 
of  air  in  soils,  read  Chapter  ix.  of  King's  "Soil." 

89&.  On  the  effects  and  necessity  of  tillage,  read  Chapter  ill. 
in  Roberts'  "Fertility  of  the  Land,"  and  Chapter  xii.  in  King's 
"Soil."  A  most  interesting  diversion  in  this  couuection  is  a 
perusal  of  Jethro  Tull's  famous  book  on  "Horse-Hoeing  Hus- 
bandry" (53c).  Copies  of  Cobbett's  edition  may  frequently  be 
found  in  antiquarian  book  stores. 

91a.    The  trench  left  by  the  plow  is   a   furrow.      The    earth 


/'. 


I 


f. 


/ 


l\ 


-    d 


k   a 

1  £ 


I 


74 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


which  is  turned  out  of  the  furrow  is  a  furrow -si  ice.  In  common 
speech,  however,  the  word  furrow  is  often  used  for  the  furrow- 
slice. 

916.  The  accompanying  pictures,  adapted  from  Roberts' 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  illustrate  different  types  of  plow- work. 
Fig.  19  shows  the  furrow-slice  completely  inverted.  This  kind  of 
plowing  looks  well,  but  it  is  not  desirable  unless  the  object  is  to 
bury  weeds   or  a   green-crop.     The  furrow-slices  are  not  broken 


Fig.  23.    A  subsoil  plow. 


Fig.  24.     A  smootliing  liarrc 


and  pulverized,  and  they  are  in  such  position  that  the  harrow 
cannot  tear  them  to  pieces.  Fig.  20  represents  work  which  is 
better,  for  most  conditions,  although  the  slices  are  not  pulverized. 
Fig.  21  shows  ideal  plowing. 

91c.  The  ideal  plow  for  general  farm  work,  in  Roberts' 
opinion,  is  shown  in  Fig.  22.  Observe  the  "quick"  or  sharp 
curve  of  the  moldboard.  For  an  excellent  sketch  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  plow,  consult  Chapter  ii.  of  Roberts'  "Fertility  of 
the  Land." 

93a.  About  12  to  20  per  cent  of  moisture  in  the  soil  is  the 
ideal  condition  for  most  plants.  Let  the  pupil  figure  out  what  the 
percentage  will  be  after  a  rainfall  of  one  inch  on  soils  that  are 
four  inches  deep  and  eight  inches  deep.  Consult  Roberts,  "  Fer- 
tility of  the  Land,"  pp.  77  to  79. 

94a.  By  hard-pan  is  meant  very  hard  and  more  or  less 
impervious  subsoil.  Some  subsoils  are  loose  ;  others  are  so  hard 
as  to  prevent  the  downward  movement  of  water  and  roots  (/9a). 


gr^>^>,^^(>-; 


Kig.  25.    The  loose  mulch 
on  forest  unils. 


Fig.  'JO.    The  80II -mulch 
on  tilled  Innds. 


€ 


J' 


:^ 


Ktfi.  'J7.     A  liumu  uiuUe  pliuiker. 


^.^ff^f;;?-/,-. 


p: 


■ill-  .•ff<><'t 
atMU-tlng 


U-. 


y-.-  '-'  ......  I.,.. 

1    Ixi     TV 

.     ift«<rth» 
roller  hm  l>o«n  u*«d. 


76  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

97a.  The  subsoil  plow  does  not  turn  a  furrow  (Fig,  23).  It 
is  drawn  by  an  extra  team,  which  follows  the  ordinary  plowing. 

99a.  A  useful  tool  for  making  and  maintaining  the  soil -mulch 
is  the  smoothing  harrow  shown  in  Fig.  24.  On  hard  lands, 
however,  heavier  and  more  vigorous  tools  must  be  used. 

99/>.    Observe   how  moist   the  soil    is   in  forests,  even  in  dry 
times.      This  condition   is    due  partly  to    the   forest    shade,    but ' 
perhaps  chiefly  to  the  mulch  of  leaves  on  the  ground  (Fig.  25). 

101a.  Some  farmers  are  always  asking  how  to  kill  weeds,  as 
if  this  were  the  chief  end  of  farming.  But  good  farmers  seldom 
worry  about  weeds,  because  that  management  of  the  farm  which 
makes  land  the  most  productive  is  also  the  one  which  prevents 
weeds  from  gaining  a  foothold.  But  there  are  some  cases,  as 
we  shall  find  in  the  next  chapter,  in  which  weeds  may  be 
allowed  to  grow  with  profit. 

102o.  A  planker  or  float  is  shown  in  Fig.  27.  This  is  a 
home-made  device.  In  some  parts  of  the  country  it  is  called  a 
slicker  ;  and  in  the  West  it  is  known  as  a  drag.  In  the  East,  the 
word  drag  is  synonymous  with  harrow. 

104a.  To  determine  when  and  how  much  to  roll  land,  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  of  agricultural  operations.  This  is  because 
the  good  effects  are  so  often  followed  by  the  ill  effects  of  loss 
of  moisture  and  of  puddling  of  hard  lands  when  heavy  rains 
follow.  Whenever  the  object  of  rolling  is  to  compact  loose 
lands  or  merely  to  crush  the  clods,  the  work  should  be  quickly 
followed  by  the  harrow  or  cultivator.     Compare  Figs.  28  and  29. 


CiiM'i  Ki;    V 


FAU'h  III.\(i      llli:     SOIL  — FAIi'M    K'RSOrROES 


1.      Wliilt    /■urn/     UrsoiO'ii  s    Air 


lO.').  Tbr  real  fertility  iA'  tli.-  laii<l  is  its 
|Mi\Vfr  to  product'  n-ops.  It  is  soiiit'tiiiit's  sai<l 
to  be  the  riehiiess  of  tlie  soil  in  t'lniieiits  ol 
plant  -  food  ;  Imt  soils  witli  iiiiicli  j)la?it-f()(Ml 
may  still  Ih'  improdiu'tivt-.  i'^•rtility  is  pro- 
ductive powci".  It  is  the  I'csult  of  i,'ood  jihysi- 
cal  condition  and  an  ahuiidancc  of  available 
plant -foo(l. 

1<|  i.  \Vf  have  found  (in  ('lia))tcrs  ii.,  iii. 
and  iv.)  that  the  first  step  towards  increasing 
the  productiveness  of  soil  is  to  improve  its 
physical  texture.  This  impn^vement  is  accom- 
plished both  by  mechanical  means,  as  tilhiire 
and  draiiuiETe,  -and  by  the  addition  of  hunnis. 
The  humus  results  from  the  applieation  or  incor- 
poratioii  of  organic  matter. 

107.  We  have  seen  (.'U)  that  humus  is 
supplied,  in  praetieo,  by  eropping. — that  is,  \)\ 
veixetable  matter  left  on  the  ground  after  the 
crop     is     removed,    r.r     by    crops    plowed    under 

(77) 


78  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

and   by  stable   manures    and   other  direct  appli- 
cations. 

2.   Crop2)ing  Resources 

2a.  TJie  Mnds  of  green -manures 

108.  The  stubbles  of  grain,  clover,  grass  and 
sowed  corn  add  considerable  humus  to  the 
soil,  and  there  is  also  much  vegetable  fiber 
left  in  the  ground  in  the  roots  ;  and  the  refuse 
left  from  potatoes  and  garden  crops  is  often 
important.  Sometimes  the  stubble  and  roots 
are  nearly  as  valuable  for  ameliorating  the ' 
soil  as  the  part  which  is  removed  from  the 
land.  This  is  especially  true  in  clover,  par- 
ticularly if  it  is  not  cut  close  to  the  ground. 
Roberts  reports  that  a  second -growth  of  clover, 
two  years  from  seeding,  gave  5,417  pounds  per 
acre  of  top  and  2,368  pounds  of  roots  in  the 
upper  eight  inches  of  soil  ;  and  the  roots  usu- 
ally extend  to  three  or  four  times  that  depth. 

109.  Humus  is  often  secured  by  growing 
crops  for  that  particular  purpose ;  that  is,  by 
the  practice  of  green -manuring.  Green -manure 
crops  are  of  three  categories :  {a)  regular  or 
full -season  crops,  which  occupy  the  land  for 
one  or  more  seasons  before  they  are  plowed 
under,  or  until  they  have  reached  nearly  or 
.quite  their  full  growth;  {!))  catch -crops,  which 
are  grown  in  the   seasons  between  other  crops; 


ENRICHING    THE      SOIL— FA  KM     RESOURCES  79 

(r)  cover- crops,  which  are  sowii  late  in  the 
<oasoii  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  tlie  soil 
dniiiiir  winter  as  well    as  for  firreen-iiianurin«^. 

lli>.  ( irt'cn-mannrinir  <'rops  may  lie  afrain 
ilivjtlt'd  into  those  which  leather  nitrogen  and 
those  which  do  not, — or  those  which  have  the 
power  of  using  the  nitrogen  (see  Chapter  vi.) 
of  the  air,  antl  those  which  olitain  all  their 
nitrogen  <lirectly  from  the  soil.  The  nitnvgen- 
gatlierers  leave  th«'ir  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  when 
they  decay,  for  the  use  of  other  plants.  The 
nitiv^gen-gatherers  are  the  legiuninous  jilants, 
or  those  which  heloiig  to  the  pea  family,  as 
all  kinds  of  peas  and  heans,  clovers,  alfalfa, 
vetch.  The  otln'r  class,  or  nitrogen-consumers, 
comprises  all  other  plants  used  t'or  green-ina- 
nuriiiL'",  as  rye,  o.it^.  rape,  mustard,  hiick wheat, 
maize. 

111.  In  general,  the  best  gjeen-mamu-e  crops 
are  liie  leginnes, — re*!  clover  for  the  North, 
alfalfa  for  dry  region<,  <'ow-peas  and  Japan 
clover  for  th«'  Snuth.  With  tii.*  excejition  of 
tlie  »'oNv-peas,  these  crops  recjuire  one  or  more 
seasons  for  full  <level(»pment,  and,  then't'oii'. 
cannot    he    used    in    intensive    farming. 

2''.     Iht    mnntiijimtnt  of  <jrn  tt  •  nuiiiurt  s 

ll'J.  The  iileal  green -manuring  is  that  which 
IS    a     part    of    a    regular    rotation, — the    greeu- 


80  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

manure  crop,  or  the  stubble  or  sod,  occurring 
regularly  once  every  few  years,  in  alternation 
with  wheat,  potatoes  and  other  staple  crops. 
This,  however,  is  possible  only  with  general  or 
mixed  husbandry  (4rt).  In  market- gardening, 
and  other  intensive  farming,  catch- crops  are 
often  used.  In  fruit-growing,  cover -crops  are 
frequently  used. 

113.  But  even  in  intensive  farming,  the  land 
sometimes  becomes  unproductive  from  too  con- 
tinuous cropping  with  one  thing,  and  the  too 
persistent  use  of  one  kind  of  fertilizer.  It  is 
then  often  "rested"  by  seeding  it  to  clover;  but 
the  good  effects  are  not  the  result  of  a  rest,  but 
of  rotation  or  change  of  crop. 

114.  It  is  necessary  to  distinguish  between 
the  effects  of  green -crops  in  improving  soil 
texture  and  their  effects  in  enriching  the  soil ; 
for  soils  which  may  need  improving  in  texture 
may  not  need  enriching.  In  fruit-growing  this 
is  often  true  ;  and  the  heavy  addition  of  nitro- 
gen (which  conduces  to  growth  of  wood)  may 
cause  the  plants  to  gi^ow  too  heavily  and  to 
bear  little,  and  to  be  too  susceptible  to  dis- 
ease and  to  cold.  In  such  cases,  the  nitrogen - 
consumers  are  the  better  crops.  One  must  be 
careful  not  to  induce  an  over- growth  in  gi-apes, 
peaches,  apricots,  and  pears. 

115.  On    hard    and    poor    lands,    it    is   often 


ENRICHING     THE      SOIL —FARM     RESOURCES  81 

difficult  to  secure  a  "catch"  of  clover.  lii  such 
cases,  it  is  well  to  l)«'<:;in  with  fall -sown  rye  or 
field  peas.  When  the  soil  has  become  mellow, 
clover  may  be  successful. 

IK).  Cover-crops  are  used  nn^stly  in  fruit 
plantations.  They  are  sown  in  miilsumnier,  or 
later,  after  tillage  is  completed,— for  tillage  sliould 
cease  early,  in  onler  that  tlif  fruit  jilants  will 
not  grow  too  heavily  and  too  lat«'.  The  cover 
is  pl<>we<l  under  early  the  following  spring 
(74«).  The  cover  checks  the  growth  of  the 
fruit  plants,  i)rcvt'nts  the  land  from  washing 
and  jniddling,  ln)lds  the  rainfall  until  it  can 
soak  into  the  soil,  causes  the  soil  to  dry  out 
early   in    spring,   lessens    injuiy   from    frost. 

117.  W»'c<ls  often  make  good  cover-cro[»s. 
The  ciiicf  <lif}iculty  is  that  they  cannot  be 
relied  upon  to  ajiprar  wlit'ii  and  wliric  and  in 
the  (|uantity  wanted,  and  some  kiiuls  may  be 
ditVicult    to    era<licate    (101«). 


3.   Dinrt  Appl'irnt'wns 

lis.  The  i>est  direct  ap])licatinn  which  tlie 
farmer  can  make  to  his  land,  from  his  home 
resources,  is  stal)le  manure.  It  su])plies  both 
humus    and    plant -food. 


82  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

119.  The  value  of  manure  depends  upon 
(a)  the  kind  of  animal  from  which  it  is  made, 
(6)  the  feed  which  the  animal  receives,  (c) 
the  amount  of  bedding  or  litter  which  it  con- 
tains, (d)  the  way  in  which  it  is  kept  or 
housed. 

120.  Some  of  the  most  valuable  constituents 
of  manure  are  soluble,  and  are,  therefore, 
removed  by  water.  Consequently,  manures 
should  be  housed  to  protect  them  from  rain. 
A  covered  barn -yard  is  the  ideal  place  in 
which  to  keep  manures,  for  they  are  not  only 
protected  from  weather,  but,  if  the  manure 
contains  enough  straw  or  litter,  it  makes  an 
agreeable  bed  upon  which  stock  may  tramp, 
and  it  absorbs  the  liquids  ;  and  if  it  is  spread 
in  the  yard  as  it  is  made  and  well  tramped  by 
stock,  its  tendency  to  heat  is  reduced.  In  six 
months'  exposure  to  weather,  manures  usually 
lose  more  than  half  of  their  available  plant -food. 

121.  The  more  completely  rotted  the  ma- 
nure, the  sooner  does  it  become  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  soil ;  and  the  decay  of 
the  coarse  parts  renders  their  plant- food  more 
available.  If  the  rotting  proceeds  under  cover 
or  in  a  compost  pile  (34a,  Fig.  5),  there  should 
be  little  loss  of  plant-food  by  leaching. 

122.  If  manure  cannot  be  sheltered,  it 
should     be     spread     on    the     fields    as    fast    as 


ENRICHING     THK     SOIL — lAKM     KKSorKf'KS  83 

made.  There  is  practically  no  loss  of  jtlant- 
food  from  ova])oratiou,  and  the  part  wliich 
loaches  is  cau«j:ht  by  the  soil.  Loose  or  strawy 
manure  which  lies  too  long  on  the  ground, 
however,  may  l)e<'om(»  so  <lry  that  it  does  not 
quickly  decay  when  plowe<l  under ;  if  ai>plied 
very  thick,  it  prevents  heavy  soils  from  drying 
out,  and    there! )y  delays  spring   work. 

3i.    Other  tlressitujs 

\2'.\.  Muck  is  often  useful  as  a  source  of 
humus,  hut  it  generally  contains  little  directly 
availahle  plant-food.  It  is  generally  imjtroved 
if  dug  and  allowed  to  weather  some  time  })e- 
fore  it  is  j)ut  on  the  land.  Dry  muck  is  very 
useful  in  stahh's  and  covered  harn-yaids  to 
absorb  the  licjuids  ;  and  its  value  as  a  dress- 
m^  for  the   land   is   thereby  increased. 

124.  Peat,  when  decomposed  and  soil -like, 
becomes  muck.  Peat,  therefore,  is  less  valuable 
than  muck  as  a  <lressing  until  it  has  been 
thoroughly  broken  up  ami  tlecompose<l  by 
weathering   or   composting. 

125.  Marl  is  usually  not  rii-h  in  available 
plant-food,  but,  like  muck,  it  may  be  valuable 
to  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil. 
But  only  in  exceptional  cases  is  it  worth  haul- 
ing great   distances. 

126.  Such       matcriaLs      as     sawdust,      straw, 


84  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

leaves,  pomace,  are  generally  more  valuable 
for  the  improving  of  the  texture  of  the  soil 
than  for  the  direct  addition  of  jDlant-food.  If 
the  soil  is  loose,  dry  and  leachy,  or  if  it  is 
very  hard,  compact  and  retentive,  these  ma- 
terials may  benefit  it.  To  determine  the  value 
of  such  materials  in  plant -food,  one  must  con- 
sult tables  of  their  composition  in  books  ;  and 
the  more  thoroughly  the}^  are  rotted,  the  more 
available  are  their  constituents. 


SUOGESTIOJSrS    ON   CHAPTEB    V 

108a.  "The  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  [in  clovers]  varies 
widely.  The  medium  red  clover,  one  year  from  seeding,  gives 
a  much  larger  proportion  of  roots  to  tops  than  clover  two  years 
from  seeding.  Red  clover  which  produces  two  tons  per  acre 
may  be  expected  to  furnish  potentially  to  the  soil,  after  the 
first  cutting,  in  roots  and  stubble,  40  to  60  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  to  25  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  30  to  50  pounds  of 
potash.  Thirty  bushels  of  wheat  *  *  *  and  2,700  pounds 
of  straw,  would  remove  approximately  46  pounds  of  nitrogen, 
20  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  26  pounds  of  potash." — 
Eoberts,  ^^ Fertility  of  the  Land,"  345. 

109a.  Accessible  discussions  of  green -manuring  are  to  be 
found  in  Chap,  xiv.,  "Fertility  of  the  Land;"  pp.  117-123,  Voor- 
hees'  "Fertilizers."  Cover-crops  in  relation  to  fruit-culture  are 
discussed  in  pp.  184-202  of  Bailey's  "Principles  of  Fruit-Grow- 
ing,"  and  in  other  books  and  recent  bulletins. 

Ilia.  Intensive  farming  is  "high-culture"  farming.  It  is 
farming  on  a  comparatively  small  scale,  when  the  laud  is  kept 
constantly  in  productive  crop,  with  the  best  of  tillage,  and  the 
free  use  of  manures  and  fertilizers.     The   Innd   is  forced  to  its 


Fig.  30.     A  covt-rrii  I'.'irn  yard,  in  which  uiitiiuro  is  saved  mid  the  itock 
protected. 


Kij(.  SI.  A  rommon  trp«  of  bam  yard.  ine»t«in»on  Iho  Imrn  nhow  wh«>rr  th* 
mannm  wiu  ImptltMl  fmm  the  •*▼••:  and  lb*  mudpuddl*  abowi  wh«r« 
moeb  of  th«  fvrtlllty  ha«  |no«. 


86 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


utmost  capacity.  Market -gardening  and  forcing-house  culture 
are   examples. 

1116.  Exten-sive  farming  is  general  husbandry,  especially 
when  done  on  a  large  scale  and  without  forceful  methods  of 
tillage  and  cropping.  Grain -farming  and  stock-raising  are  ex- 
amples. / 

120a.  A  covered  barn-yard  is  shown  in  Fig.  30.  This  is  a 
basement  under  the  farm  barn  at  Cornell  University.  This 
affords  a  protected  place  in  which  the  stock  may  exercise  in 
cold  weather  ;    and  if  the   cattle   are   dehorned,   thej'  remain  to- 


Fig.  32.  A  handy  and  economical  stable,  with  cattle-racks,  a  manure  trough 
(behind  which  is  a  walk),  and  a  small  shed  at  the  rear,  with  a  hollowed 
cement  bottom,  for  the  storage  of  the  manure. 

gether  peaceably.  Such  an  area  not  only  saves  the  manure,  but 
it  adds  to  the  welfare  and  value  of  the  stock.  Compare  this 
with  the  commoner  type  of  yard,  as  shown  in  Fig.  31.  A 
handy  and  efficient  arrangement  for  the  saving  of  manure  is 
shown  in  Fig.  32.  For  general  discussions  on  farm  manures 
and  methods  of  saving  and  handling  them,  consult  Roberts, 
"Fertility  of  the  Land,"  Chapters  vi.,  vii.,  viii.,  ix. 

126a.  Muck,  marl,  and  other  materials  of  this  class  are 
considered  in  Voorhees'  "Fertilizers,"  Chapter  vi.,  and  in  Roberts' 
"Fertility,  Chapter  xiii. ;"  and  the  appendix  to  the  latter  work  has 
full  tables  of  the  fertilizer  constituents  of  very  many  substances. 


Chapter    VT 

ENRICllINc;    THK    SOIL— COMMERCIAL 
RESOIRC^ES 

O.   W.  CAVANAVQH 

1.       riic     i.lrtuiHts    ni    tilt    Soil 

127.  Cheinically,  a  fertile  soil  is  one  con- 
taining an  al)uu<lanee  of  availal)!*'  i»lant-foo<l. 
The  substances  which  air  iifffssary  U^y  tho 
uTowth  an<l  welfare  of  plants  are  called  plant- 
foods.  Tiiere  are  about  ten  essential  dements 
of  plant- food.  Six  of  these  are  <leriveil  from 
thf  mineral  jtart  of  the  soil, — phosphorus 
sulfur,  iron,  calfium,  magnesium  and  potas- 
sium. Nitrogen  is  contained  in  the  humus. 
Water  sup|)lies  the  hydrogen  an«l  oxygen 
to  the  roots.  Carbon  comes  from  tin?  air.  For- 
tunately, the  greater  part  of  the  plant -food  ele- 
ments of  the  soil  always  exist  in  quantities  more 
than  suflieient  to  supply  any  possible  iiimmI  of 
the  j)lants. 

I'JH.  Three  of  tiiese  elements  are  often  de- 
ficient in  the  soil  ;    or,  if  present,  they  may  not 

(87) 


88  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

be  in  condition  to  be  used  by  the  plant.  These 
are  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  and  potassium,  A 
fourth  plant-food  is  also  sometimes  deficient, — 
calcium.  These  four  substances,  therefore,  are 
the  ones  which  the  farmer  needs  to  consider 
when  fertilizing  the  land. 

129.  Before  the  plant  can  use  any  of  these 
elements  of  plant -food  in  the  soil,  they  must 
become  dissolv^ed  in  the  soil  water,  which  is 
absorbed  by  roots. 

130.  While  all  plants  need  certain  elements 
for  their  growth,  they  cannot  use  the  elements 
in  their  elemental  or  uncombined  forms.  In 
fact,  the  elements  as  such  do  not  exist  in  the 
soil.  They  are  united  with  each  other  in  com- 
pounds, and  it  is  by  absorbing  the  compounds 
that  the  plants  obtain  the  necessary  elements. 
Phosphorus  is  essential  to  the  life  of  plants, 
but  it  is  never  used  by  them  in  the  form  of 
elemental  phosphorus.  It  is  always  in  some 
compound,  as  phosphoric  acid  or  a  phosphate. 

131.  When  the  compounds  exist  in  such 
condition  as  to  be  readily  absorbed  by  the 
roots,  the  soil  is  said  to  contain  available 
plant -food.  Often  there  is  sufficient  plant -food 
present,  but  not  in  condition  to  be  taken  up 
by  the  plants.  It  is  then  said  to  be  unavail- 
able, or  to  be  locked  up.  Availability  is  deter- 
mined   by  two  factors :    by  the   substance   being 


ENRICinN({    SOIL— COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES  81) 

soluble  in  soil  wator;  hy  its  being  of  such  com- 
position that  tli»»  plant  will  nso  it. 

l.')l!.  ()ii»»  ])ri)l)l('in  for  tlio  airricultnrist  is  to 
secure  available  plant-food,  and  to  dt't»^rinine 
.vhotlicr  it  i^  better  to  indoek  tlic  itlant-food 
in  tho  soil  by  means  of  tillas^e,  or  to  supply 
tho  elcnuMits  in  some  mamu'o  or  ftn-tilizci-. 

in.'>.  Barn  nianni'fs  an*  not  always  to  Ik^  had, 
and  they  an^  varialjle  in  cotnjtosition.  It  is  often 
advisable,  therefore,  to  substitute  conunercial  or 
eoneontratod  fertilizers,  in  which  the  constituents 
aro  of  known  amounts  and  often  readily  avail- 
able. Barn  manures  are  bulky.  Even  manure 
of  cattle  from  a  covered  yard  contains  a> 
hiji^h  as  70  or  7.")  pn-  cfiit  of  \\at«'r,  and  usu- 
ally less  than  I  j)cr  cent  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  or  potash.  If  it  were  not  for  its 
influence  in  improvinjLT  thf  jiliysical  effects  of  the 
soil,  stable  manure  would  have  comparatively 
little  value. 

2.   Nitrngrfi 

134.  Nitrop^en  is  the  most  important  element 
which  the  farmer  adds  to  his  soil.  It  comprises 
part  of  all  prreen  and  woody  parts  of  })lants. 
It  seems  to  l)e  the  element  most  intimately 
associated  with  rapid  ^-rowth  in  plants.  Plants 
that  feed    excessively  on    nitrogen   tend    to    pro- 


90  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

duce  large  leaves  and  stalks,  while  the  hardi- 
ness may  suffer.  On  the  other  hand,  insuf- 
ficient nitrogen  is  almost  certain  to  result  in 
dwarfing  and  loss  of  vitality.  It  must  receive 
attention,  also,  because  one  form,  the  nitrate, 
tends  to  leach  from  the  soil. 

135.  In  a  pure  or  elemental  state,  nitrogen 
is  an  invisible  gas.  It  comprises  four -fifths 
of  the  atmosphere.  And  yet,  with  this  vast 
amount  about  us,  it  is  the  most  expensive  ele- 
ment of  plant -food.  The  nitrogen  of  the  air 
can  not  be  used  by  the  great  majority  of  plants, 
because  it  is  in  what  is  known  as  a  free  or  un- 
combined  state.  The  sources  of  nitrogen  for 
plants  are  ammonia,  nitrates,  or  in  some 
compound  formed  by  animals  or  plants  (that 
is,  in   some   organic  form). 

136.  If  the  gas  nitrogen  be  combined  with 
the  gas  hydrogen,  there  will  be  formed  am- 
monia (N  H3) .  From  this  the  plants  can 
derive,  indirectly,  their  supply  of  nitrogen. 
Another  compound  of  nitrogen  is  called  nitric 
acid,  which  is  composed  of  nitrogen,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen  (H  N  O3) .  When  some  mineral 
element  takes  the  place  of  the  hydrogen  in 
this  combination,  the  compound  is  called  a 
nitrate  :  as  Na  N  O3,  nitrate  of  soda  ;  K  N  O3, 
nitrate  of  potash,  or  saltpetre.  Both  ammonia 
and    nitrates    are    found    in    the    soil    in    small 


ENRICHING     SOIL— COMMERCIAL     RESOURCES  91 

quantities,  but  only  in  a  fertile  soil  in  suflBcient 
amDimts    to    supply   the   plant  with   nitrop^ou. 

\'M.  Ilunuis  is  the  great  storehouse  of 
nitro,ir«Mi.  lliimus  (Iocs  not  dissolve  in  water, 
and  so  serves  as  a  means  of  retaining  tln^ 
nitrogen  against  K'arliing.  But  if  tlu>  nitrogen 
remained  always  in  the  hunms,  it  would  not 
he  availal)le  to  plants,  sinee  to  be  absorbed  it 
must  dissolve  in  the  soil -water.  Fortunately 
there  is  a  process  whereby  the  nitrogen  in  the 
insoluble  humus  is  made  to  be  available.  This 
process  is  the  work  of  germs  or  mi(M"o- organ- 
isms (.T),  37)(i) .  These  germs  are  of  several 
kinds.  One  kind  works  u]>on  tlu"  hunnis  and 
changes  its  niti-ogen  into  ammonia,  ami  other 
kinds  change  the  annnonia  into  nitric  acid. 
This  process  of  changing  nitrogen  into  the 
form  of  nitric  acid  or  niti-ate  is  called  nitri- 
ticatiou.  It  is  probable  tii.it  nitrogen  enters 
the  plant  chielly  in  form  of  nitrate,  so  that 
all  other  forms  of  nitrogen  must  undergo  nitri- 
fication, or  be  nitritied,  before  they  are  of  use. 
Since  tilla^'e  promotes  th»>  activities  of  the  micro- 
organisms (3.'),  f)!,*,  Hi)),  it  thereby  incjeases  tlie 
supply  of  available  nitrogen. 

l.'.s.  It  has  been  stated  (135)  that  the  great 
quantity  of  nitrogt»n  in  the  atmosphere  is  not 
available  to  most  })lants,  because  it  is  not  in 
u   conjbine<l     state.       Thei*e    uie    certain     jdaiits, 


92  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     A(4RICULTURE 

however,  which  have  the  power  of  drawing 
upon  this  supply  for  their  nitrogen.  They  are 
the  leguminous  plants,  and  include  the  clovers, 
peas  and  beans  (110).  These  plants  have  knobs 
or  nodules  growing  upon  their  roots.  These 
nodules  are  the  homes  of  germs;  and  these 
germs  seize  upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  air  and 
turn  it  over  to  the  plant.  This  process  is 
known  as  the  fixation  of  nitrogen.  Then  if 
these  crops  are  plowed  under  they  not  only 
add  humus  from  their  vegetable  substance, 
but  nitrogen  which  has  been  gathered  from 
the   air. 

139.  The  nitrogen  added  in  green -crops  or 
humus  must  go  through  the  process  of  nitri- 
fication before  it  is  available  to  the  plant. 
Sometimes  this  process  does  not  furnish  nitric 
acid  fast  enough  to  supply  rapidly  growing 
plants,  and  then  a  form  of  available  nitrogen 
may  be  added  direct.  This  can  be  done  by 
using  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate  of  ammonia. 
The  former  is  mined  in  Chile  ;  the  latter  is  a 
substance  obtained  from  gas  works.  The  am- 
monia formed  from  the  nitrogen  that  was  in  the 
coal  or  wood  is  caught  in  sulfuric  acid  (generally 
known  as  oil  of  vitriol).  These  two  substances, 
together  with  dried  blood  from  the  slaughter 
houses,  constitute  the  best  commercial  sources 
of  nitrogen. 


ENKinilNG     SUIL— COMMnRClAL     HESOrUCES  93 

3.  Phosphoric  Arid 

140,  IMiosplioru'  acid  is,  noxt  tt)  nitropfon,  tlie 
most  important  plaiit-fnod  to  lit>  applitMl  to 
land,  and  of  tlio  niintTal  const ilucnts  it  is  the 
most  important.  It  is  a  coiistitncnt  of  all  soils, 
thonLch  the  amount  may  he  variahlc  It  is  par- 
ticularly needed  to  insure  hardiness  and  fruit- 
fulness.  Consequently  tlie  dilTerent  grain  crops 
are  larire  us»'rs  of  phos]>hori('  acid.  A  liheral 
supply  of  available  phosj)horic  acid  is  necessary 
to  young  plants  to  give  them  strength  and 
vigor. 

141.  As  humus  decays  or  decomposes  in  the 
soil  it  n«>t  only  siijiplics  nitrogen,  but  it  also 
makes  some  of  the  phosphoric  acid  available. 
Hence  when  the  hunuis  diminishes  in  the  soil, 
there  is  often  a  correspouding  lack  i>f  available 
phosphoric  acid.  Ram  niamires  make  available 
a  considerable  quantity  of  phosphoric  acid.  Soils 
which  contain  a  fair  supply  of  humus  do  not 
necessarily  have  enough  of  phosphoric  acid. 
To  su(di  soils  phosphoric  acid  may  be  suj)plied 
in    an    available    form    in    acid    phosphates. 

14J.  Pure  phosj)horic  acid  (P2O5),  however,  is 
not  use<l  directly  as  a  plant-food,  but  only  when 
it  is  combined  with  some  other  substance,  as 
lime.  One  of  the  chief  sources  of  phosphoric 
acid    is    bone,    in    which    it    is    found    combined 


94  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

with  lime.  The  animals  obtained  the  phosphoric 
acid  from  the  plants  they  ate,  which  in  their 
turn  secured  it  from  the  soil.  Another  great 
source  are  the  deposits  of  phosphatic  rocks  in 
the  Carolinas,  Florida  and  Tennessee.  In  these 
rocks  the  phosphoric  acid  and  lime  are  com- 
bined in  the  same  way  as  in  bones. 

143.  Bones  and  phosphoric  rocks  do  not  dis- 
solve in  water,  and  consequently  the  phosphoric 
acid  they  contain  is  not  easily  absorbed  by 
roots.  These  materials,  therefore,  are  com- 
monly treated  with  acid,  to  make  the  phos- 
phoric acid  soluble ;  and  the  material  is  then 
known  as   an  acid  phosphate. 

144.  In  bones,  one  part  of  phosphoric  acid 
(P2O5)  is  combined  with  three  parts  of  lime 
(CaO),  and   can    be    expressed    as    follows: 

Lime  ~\  CaO  ^ 

Lime  y  Phosphoric  acid ;    or,  CaO  y  P2O5 
Lime  )  CaO  j 

This  substance  is  tri-  (or  three)  calcic  phos- 
phate, and  is  insoluble.  When  sulfuric  acid  (or 
oil  of  vitriol)  and  water  are  brought  in  con- 
tact with  the  bones,  part  of  the  lime  leaves 
the  phosphoric  acid,  and  its  place  is  taken  by 
water.  If  one  part  of  the  lime  is  united  with 
the  sulfuric  acid,  then  there  results  a  sub- 
stance which   can   be  written  thus  : 


KNKICUING     SOIL— (^OMMEKCIAL     RESOURCES  95 

Waters  11:0  ^ 

Lime    V  Phosphoric  acid  ;  or,  CaO  v  PjOj 
Lime   )  CaO  \ 

This  is  di-  (or  two)  calcic  pliosphate.  This  is 
iii<ohil»I«>  in  rnin-wator,  })iit  ln'ci^nios  solultl<'  in 
tlic  soil-water. 

145.  If  two  parts  of  the  lime  be  united  with 
sulfuric  acid  and  their  places  be  taken  by  water, 
there  remains  : 

Water")  H:.0^ 

Water  v  Phosphoric  acid ;  or,  H-0  v  PjOj 
Lime    \  CaO  ) 

This  is  mono-  (or  one)  calcic  })hosphate.  This 
is  readily  soluble  in  soil  water,  but  in  the  soil  it 
tends  to  become  insoluble,  or  to  revert  to  the 
dicalcic  form  (and  is  then  said  to  be  "reverted"), 
and  some  of  it  may  eventually  become  tricalcie 
and  unavailable.  The  lime  that  is  nMuoved  by 
the  sulfurie  acid  unites  with  the  sulfuric  acid  to 
form  calcium  sulfate  ;  that  is,  phister  or  i^ypsum 
(CaSO^).  The  dicalcic  an<l  mouocalcic  are  the 
forms  that  are  known  as  acid  phosphate,  and 
sold  in  commercial  fertilizers. 

4.   potash  {))otassium  oxide,  K^O) 

146.  Next  to  phosphoric  acid,  potasli  is  the 
most  important  mineral  plant -foo<l.  It  is  placed 
after    phosphoric     acid    in     importance    not    be- 


96  THE     PRINCIPLES     OI-'     AUKICULTUEE 

cause  plants  can  better  do  without  it,  but 
because  it  is  usually  more  abundant  in  soils. 
Potash  has  an  important  office  in  the  produc- 
tion of  firm,  woody  tissue  and  of  starch,  and 
it  is  thought  to  be  particularly  needed  by  fruit- 
plants,  potatoes,  and  root  crops.  It  is  gen- 
erally deficient  in  sandy  and  peaty  soils. 

147.  Like  phosphoric  acid,  jDotash  becomes 
available  with  a  liberal  supply  of  humus  and 
by  good  tillage ;  and  the  potash  in  barn  ma- 
nures is  soluble  and  valuable.  Whenever  wood 
ashes  can  be  cheaply  obtained  they  form  a  valu- 
able source  of  potash,  for  the  potash  taken 
from  the  soil  by  the  trees  remains  in  the  ashes 
when  the  wood  is   burned. 

148.  Potash  is  found  in  great  deposits  in 
Germany,  very  much  as  common  salt  is  found 
in  the  United  States.  There  it  is  mined  and 
sold.  It  can  be  bought  in  the  form  known  as 
the  muriate  of  potash,  or  more  properly  j^otas- 
sium  chlorid,  KCl.  Another  form  of  potash  is 
the  sulfate,  K2SO4.  The  sulfate  costs  a  little 
more  than  the  other,  because  it  is  made  from 
the  muriate.  For  general  purposes,  the  muri- 
ate is  recommended  over  the  sulfate  because 
it  is  cheaper ;  but  the  muriate  has  a  dele- 
terious effect  on  tobacco,  and  it  is  thought 
to  give  less  satisfactory  results  on  sugar-cane 
and    potatoes. 


KMCU'HlNti     SOIL — CO.MMKKCIAL     KhSOLKCKS  i<7 

5.    Amendments 

141*.  Substiiuces  which  contain  only  traces 
of  the  important  or  available  plant- foods  often 
have  a  beneficial  elTect  on  soil.  Lime  and  salt 
are  examples.  Though  they  may  not  add  to  the 
soil  any  needed  plant-food,  the  plants  are  en- 
abled by  their  presence  to  utilize  more  of  the 
l)lant-food  already  in  the  soil.  Such  materials 
are   known  as   amendments  (aS). 

l.'>().  It  is  often  dif!icult  to  decide,  in  any 
partit'ular  case,  just  how  an  amendment  pio- 
duces  its  effect.  It  may  be  that  the  meehanieal 
condition  of  the  soil  is  improved,  its  water- 
h(>ldin«j;  cai)acity  increase<l,  its  acidity  or  sour- 
ness neutralized,  or  its  plant-food  unlocked. 

l.')l.  Lime.  Soils  sometim«\s  ])ecome  sour,  and 
may  then  be  unsuitable  for  some  plants.  One 
of  the  i-eason<  why  plants  <io  not  thi'ive  well  in 
sour  soils  is  that  it  is  ditlicult  to  obtain  sutlicient 
nitmi^en  in  the  form  of  nitrates.  The  germs 
which  carry  on  the  i)rocess  of  nitrification  are 
unable  to  do  their  work  in  sour  soils.  The  soil 
ncid  can  l)e  neutralized  —  the  soil  sweetened  —  by 
appiyini:  lime  (whicli  is  calcium  o.xide,  CaO). 

\')'2.  Lime  may  be  a])plied  in  tiie  form  of 
water-slaked  lime,  such  as  is  obtiiiuod  by  adding 
water  to  quick- lime  till  it  crumbles,  or  by  air- 
slaked  lime.     Quick-lime  usually  gives  the  better 


98  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

results,  particularly  when  it  is  desired  to  improve 
the  texture  of  clay  soils  (58,  58a) . 

153.  A  soil  may  be  tested  to  determine  if  it  is 
acid  by  placing  a  piece  of  blue  litmus  paper 
(kept  at  drug  stores)  against  the  moist  soil.  If 
the  paper  reddens  and  remains  so  after  drying,  it 
shows  the  presence  of  an  acid  in  the  soil.  It  is 
best  to  apply  the  paper  not  to  the  top  of  the  soil, 
but  to  the  side  of  a  hole  such  as  would  be  made 
by  inserting  a  spade  and  moving  it  to  and  fro. 

6.    Commercial   Fertilizers 
6a.    What  they  are 

154.  Under  the  name  of  commercial  fertilizers, 
one  can  buy  the  various  forms  of  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash.  These  elements  may  be 
purchased  singly  or  mixed  in  any  combination. 
A  fertilizer  containing  all  three  is  called  a  com- 
plete manure  or  fertilizer.  In  buying,  one  should 
be  guided  by  the  guaranteed  analysis  and  not  by 
any  particular  name  or  brand. 

155.  The  commercial  value  of  nitrogen  is 
about  three  times  that  of  either  phosphoric  acid 
or  potash,  which  are  approximately  5  cents  per 
pound.  The  prices  of  these  elements  may  vary, 
but  the  following  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of 
the  computing  of  relative  values  of  different  fer- 


ENRICHINMJ     SOIL— COMMKRCIAL     KKSOUKCES  99 

tilizors  (remeniberiii^  that  1  jht  cfiit  iinMins  one 
pDund   ill   a  IhiikIivm],  or  twriit)   ik.ihhIs   in  a  ton): 

No.   1.     GrARANTKKO  Analysis 

Nitrogen       l.dO  to  "J. (10  |kt  ceut 

Phospliorio  ft<'icl  available  .  7.00  to  K.OO    "       " 
Potash       .    .  .    .  12.00  to  ;{.riO    " 

<'ost  piT  toil,  $'J9. 

Multiplyinn^  tho  lowest  tis^iiro  rcpivseiitinj?  the 
])ov  (•♦•lit  of  the  jj^iwii  elonuMit  hy  -(K  and  calcu- 
Ititinir  the  value  from  the  price  jicr  pound,  wo 
have   in   N'o.   1  : 

Nitrogen         .    .1.60X-0=    .TJ  HiH.r«^15o.  =  $4  80 

Fhosphori.'  a«'i<l    7    X -*<1=  l-t<» 'liH.r^  So.  =    7  00 

Potash  2  X20=   40  llis.raW>c.=   2  00 

Ooraiuercial  valiu-  jmt  ton  $\'A  80 

l')*).    Another   exani})l«'    of    ('<>ni}>utati<>n     may 
he  taken  : 

No.   2.      QrARASTEKD    ANALYSIS 

Nitrogen        3.30  to    4.00  per  cent 

Phosphoric  arid  available      8.00  to  10.00    "      " 
F'otash  ..  7.00  to    8.00     '       ' 

rout  per  ton,  $38. 

Its  vnhio  is  calcnlatt'il   tli.'  -aiu'-  a-   N<>.   I: 

NitroC'li  .i  .»"  ,v  -"     -     •"'  i"-'.''^  I-"'.    -  •?!•  IK) 

Phosphoric  arid  8.00  X  20=  160  lb«.@  5c,  =   8  00 

Potanh  7.00X20=  140  lbB.(^  5c.  =   7  00 

Conimercial  valae $24  S*0 


100  THE     PRIXCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

157.  The  cheapest  fertilizer  is  the  one  in 
which  one  dollar  purchases  the  greatest  amount 
of  plant-food.  In  No.  1,  $29  obtained  $13.80 
worth,  which  is  at  the  rate  of  48  cents  worth 
for  $1.  In  No.  2,  $38  buys  $24.90  worth  of 
plant-food,  or  at  the  rate  of  65  cents  worth  for 
the  dollar.  The  difference  between  the  commer- 
cial value,  as  calculated,  and  the  selling  price, 
is  to  cover  expenses  of  manufacture,  oagging, 
shipping,  commission   fees,  and   profits. 

66.  Advice  as  to  their  use 

158.  We  have  seen  that  plants  must  have 
all  three  of  the  general  fertility  elements — nitro- 
gen, phosphoric  acid,  potash — in  order  to  thrive. 
It  frequently  occurs,  however,  that  the  soil  is 
rich  enough  in  one  or  two  of  them  ;  and  in  that 
case,  it  is  not  necessary  to  apply  all  of  them. 

159.  If  a  liberal  application  is  made  of  one 
element,  the  plant  must  use  more  of  the  other 
elements  which  are  already  in  the  soil,  in  order 
to  balance  up  its  gi'owth.  It  may  result,  there- 
fore, that  the  addition  of  one  element  exhausts 
the  soil  of  some  other  element.  For  example, 
if  hea\7  gi'owth  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of 
nitrogen,  the  plant  may  need  to  draw  so 
heavily  upon  the  stores  of  available  phosphoric 
acid  as  to  deplete  the  soil  of  that  material. 


ENRICHlNc;     SOIL — ('UMMKKCIAI,     KKSOl'RCES  lUI 

1<)0.  Again,  no  n»sults  can  bo  obtained  from 
ill.'  addition  of  ono  ol»Mn«Mit  unless  the  other 
twn  are  present  in  sullieit'nt  <inanlity.  In  gen- 
cial,  therefore,  it  is  safrr  to  apply  complete 
fertilizers. 

1<)1.  Vet,  in  some  eases,  it  is  unwise  to 
apply  eompleto  fertilizers.  This  is  partieularly 
truf  of  the  a}>plieation  of  nitrogen.  The  gnnvth 
may  ain'ady  be  so  heavy  that  the  mlditioii  of 
nitrogen  \vt)uld  eause  an  overgrowth,  and  yet 
the  plants  may  Ufcd  fertilizing.  This  danger 
of  too  mueli  growth  is  greatest  with  fruit 
plants    (111). 

It)'-'.  If  nitrogen  eonduees  espe<'ially  to  leaf 
growth  (lo4),  then  it  must  be  the  clement 
whii'li  is  most  imjiortant  in  the  ft'i-tijizing  ol 
the  vegetables  which  are  grown  foi-  their  leaver 
or  succulent  stalks,  as  rhubarb,  eal>bago,  let- 
tuce, spinach,  asparagus ;  and  it  is  also  very 
important    in    the    growing   of    hay  and    succulent 

fi)ilder. 

1<).{.  Nitrogen  leaches  rajudly,  especially  if 
applied  in  the  form  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  sulfate 
of  ammonia.  It  is,  therefore,  advisal)le  to  ap- 
ply it  in  the  spring ;  and  when  use<l  in  liberal 
amounts,  it  shouM  be  apjdicd  at  intervals,  and 
not   all    at   one   time. 

\i'A.  Phosj)hori<*  acid  and  potash,  even  if 
soluble,  do    uot    leach    badly,  as    a    rule,   because 


102  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

they  tend  to  form  insoluble  compounds  with 
soil  constituents.  The  more  vegetable  matter 
a  soil  contains,  the  less  pronounced  is  the 
action  of  leaching.  As  a  rule,  commercial  ferti- 
lizers are  applied  after  the  ground  is  fitted,  and 
then  harrowed  in  or  drilled  in. 

165.  The  amounts  and  kinds  to  apply  are 
determined  by  (a)  the  analysis  of  the  material 
(that  is,  its  richness  in  plant-food),  (h)  its 
cost,  (c)  the   richness   of  the   soil   in  plant-food, 

(d)  the    tilth    or   texture    of   the    soil   (GO,  49«), 

(e)  the  kind  of  crop,  (/)  the  kind  of  farming, 
whether  intensive  or  extensive  (Ilia,  1116).  It 
follows,  therefore,  that  the  mere  analysis  of 
the  soil  and  the  plant  cannot  determine  what 
fertilizer    it   is   most  profitable  to  use. 

166.  What  fertilizers  to  use,  and  how  to 
apply  them,  are  subjects  which  are  discussed 
in  bulletins  and  books  by  many  authors ;  but 
even  after  reading  all  the  literature,  the  farmer 
must  experiment  with  his  own  land  and  his  own 
crops,  to  determine  just  what  materials  are  most 
profitable  for  his  use.  In  other  words,  the  ad- 
vice as  to  fertilizers  is  more  valuable  in  teach- 
ing a  man  principles,  in  suggesting  means  of 
experimenting,  and  in  designating  the  proba- 
bilities of  any  line  of  action,  than  in  specifying 
just  what  fertilizers  one  shall  use.  An  area  on 
one    side    of    a   field    may  be    devoted    to    such 


ENRICHINO     SOIL— COMMERCIAL     RESOURCES         103 

oxperimont,  «ni  dilferent  jmrts  of  whicli  tho 
various  olonionts  and  (.'onihiiiatioiis  of  thoni 
may  ho    appliod. 

.s(i,(iK.s/t(>.SS    t>.\     ('lIAI'TKIi     1/ 

l'J7(i.*An  element  is  a  simple  sultstance.  It  is  not  nuule  by  a 
"ombinntion  of  any  other  substances,  and  liy  no  known  means  can 
it  be  separate*!  into  any  other  siiltstances.  Siilfnr,  nitrojjen,  ami 
phosplionis  are  elements.     The  known  «<l<<ments  number  about  70. 

127A.  The  elements  are  representeil  by  one  or  more  letters, 
failed  symbols.  Usually  the  first  letter  of  the  name  is  emi»loyed. 
Thus,  nitro>ren  is  »lesijfnated  by  N,  jdiosphorus  by  1',  sulfur  by 
S.  When  the  names  of  ilifTen-nt  elements  begin  with  the  same 
letter,  as  sulfur  and  so<lium,  this  rule  cannot  be  followeil.  In 
-uch  cases,  lettern  from  the  name  of  one  of  the  elements  in  some 
other  lan^ia^e  are  used.  Thus,  Na  is  used  for  sodium,  natrium 
beinjf  the  Ijiitiu  of  sodium.  Similarly,  I*  might  represent  phos- 
phorus on  pota.ssium  ;  hence  K  is  used  tor  ]>otassium,  which  in 
I^tin  is  kalium. 

V.Wii.  Compounds  r»'sult  from  the  chemical  union  ('.Wc)  of  two 
or  more  elements.  The  compound  nmy  not  resemble  in  any  way 
any  of  the  elements  contained  in  it.  The  proportions  in  which 
i-lementM  unite  vary,  and  the  same  elements  may  be  made  to 
unite  in  different  pro[M>rtion8.  The  8amo  compound  always  con- 
tains the  eloments  in  exactly  the  same  proportion. 

l.'JOfc.  (Compounds  are  represented  by  writing  together  the 
iynilK>ls  of  tlie  elements  comi>osing  them,  togeflier  with  figures 
to  represent  the  pro|M>rtions.  Thus,  potash,  K;0,  is  a  compouml 
"f  two  parts  of  potassium  and  one  «»f  oxygen,  O.  Lime,  CaO,  is 
se<l  of  the  elements  calcium,  Ca,  and  oxygen,  and  its 
'■al  name  is  calcium  oxid.  Other  com)MMinds  are  nitrate  of 
Hoda,  NaN<)3  ;  ammonia,  NIIj  (H  representing  the  element  hy 
drogen);  water,  IIjO  ;  sulfuric  acid,  II}SO«  ;  ammonium  nitrate, 
NH4NO)  :  ammonium  sulfate  (NH4)iS04  (the  NIIi  being  taken 
twice);  starcb,  ('♦HioOi  (C;  representing  oarlMin);  suit.  NaCI 
(CI  standing  for  ohiorin;. 


104  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

130c.  Phosphoric  acid  and  potash  are  not  elements,  but  com- 
pounds. The  elemental  forms  are  phosphorus  and  potassium.  It 
is  customary,  however,  to  speak  of  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid 
and  potash  as  the  elements  of  plant-food.  Here  the  word  ele- 
ment is  not  used  in  the  chemical  sense,  but  rather  as  the  sim- 
plest form  in  which  plants  can  use  these  substances. 

131a.  Roots  have  the  power  of  dissolvins:  plant-food  (30, 
30a),  but  this  is  only  a  process  of  making  it  soluble.  Substances 
which  are  not  soluble  in  rain  water  may  be  soluble  in  soil  water. 
for  the  water  in  the  soil  contains  various  acids.  Even  when  a 
substance  is  in  solution,  the  plant  has  the  power  of  rejecting  it  : 
it  is  thereby  not  available  as  plant-food.  For  example,  nitrogen 
in  the  form  of  nitrites  (as  nitrite  of  soda,  NaN02)  is  not  availa- 
ble, although  it  is  soluble  ;  but  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  nitrates 
(as  nitrate  of  soda,  NaNOs)  is  available.  Charcoal  is  not  availa- 
ble plant-food,  although  it  is  carbon,  and  carbon  enters  more 
largely  than  any  other  element  into  plant  tissue.  But  when  the 
charcoal  is  burned,  it  forms  a  gas  called  carbon  dioxid  or  carbonic 
acid  (CO2),  from  which  the  plant  can  get  carbon. 

140a.  The  black  or  blue  head  of  an  old-fashioned  sulfur 
match  is  a  paste  containing  the  element  phosphorus,  P.  On 
igniting  the  match,  this  phosphorus  unites  with  the  element 
oxygen,  O,  in  the  air  to  form  a  small  white  cloud,  which  is  the 
compound  phosphorus  pentoxid.  Its  symbol  is  PjOs,  which 
means  that  it  is  made  by  the  union  of  two  parts  of  phosphorus 
and  five  parts  of  oxygen.  Phosphorus  pentoxid  is  known  in 
agriculture    as    phosphoric    acid. 

143a.  The  term  superphosphate  is  sometimes  used  in  the 
same  sense  as  acid  phosphate  ;  that  is,  to  designate  available 
phosphates,  or  those  which  are  made  up  of  monocalcic  and 
dicalcic  phosphates.  A  fertilizer  containing  available  phosphoric 
acid,  but  no  nitrogen  or  potash,  is  often  called  a  plain  superphos- 
phate. Complete  fertilizers  contain  all  three  of  the  important 
plant-foods. 

153«.  Moisten  a  strip  of  blue  litmus  paper  with  vinegar  or 
sour  milk,  and  note  the  change  in  color.  Then  add  to  the  milk 
or  vinegar  some    lime   water   till    it    no  longer    tastes    sour,  and 


EXRICHINO    SOIL— COMMERCIAL    RESOURCES         105 

Again  try  the  litmus  paper.  It  will  no  lonper  turn  red.  Try 
Home  nir-slaked  lime  in  the  same  way.  Make  the  aami'  tost 
with  plaster  of  paris  or  gypsum,  which  is  sulfate  of  lime.  This 
will  not  neutraliro  the  acid  or  swet-tin  the  milk  or  viiu'iirar. 
Makf  the  same  test  with  salt  and  supnr.  A  substance  which 
turns  Mue  litmus  red  is  acid  ;  one  which  turns  rci'  litmus  liluc 
is  alkaline. 

ICtvi.  The  experiment  stations  of  most  of  the  older  states 
issue  bulletins  of  advice  on  the  use  of  fertilizers,  and  these 
should  be  studied.  In  many  states  there  are  laws  designed  to 
protect  the  purchaser  of  fertilizers  ;  and  fertilizer  control  sta- 
tioDR  are  established  to  analyze  the  different  brands  and  to 
publish  the  results.  The  general  subject  of  fertilizers  is  pre- 
sented in  Voorhees'  book  on  "Fertilizers."  Good  advice  will 
also  be  found   in  Chapter  .xii.  of  Roberts'  "  Fertility." 

IGoh.  Kvery  school  should  have  bottles  of  the  leading  ferti- 
lizer chfMiicais  for  e.xhibition  ;  as  muriate  and  sulfate  of  potash, 
kainif.  gypsum  or  plaster,  bone  and  rock  phosphates,  bone- 
blnck,  dried  blood,  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfat«*  of  ammonia,  air- 
slaked  lime,  and  quick- lime.  Tnese  can  be  obtained  from 
doulera    in    fertilizers. 


Part  II 
THE    PLANT,   AND    CROPS 


Chaptek  VII 
THE    OFFICES    OF   THE    PLANT 

1.   The  Plant  and  the  Crop 

167.  In  an  agricultural  sense,  the  plant,  as 
a  representative  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  has 
four  general  types  of  uses,  or  fulfils  four  offices: 
it  aids  in  the  formation,  maintenance  and  im- 
provement of  soils ;  it  influences  the  climate 
and  habitableness  of  the  earth ;  it  is  the  ulti- 
mate source  of  food  of  domestic  animals  ;  it,  or 
its  products,  may  be  of  intrinsic  value  to  man. 

168.  When  plants  are  grown  in  quantity, 
they,  or  their  products,  constitute  a  crop.  This 
crop  may  be  the  produce  of  a  bench  of  carna- 
tions, a  field  of  barley,  an  orchard  of  peaches, 
a  plantation  of  tomatoes,  or  a  forest.  The 
crop  may  be  grown  for  its  own  or  intrinsic 
value,  or  for  its  use  in  preparing  the  land  for 
other  crops. 

(106) 


TIIK     nKKR'ES     l)f     THK     IM.ANT  UH 

2.     Tin     riant    i,i    its    Urlnt'xm    to    Soil 

\i\\K  Tilt'  ])l;iiit  is  a  soil  niakfr.  It  hroaks 
(U>\vn  tilt'  rock  l>y  iiit'i'lianu'al  tnrft'  and  Ity  dis- 
st)Ivin,Lr  s«)nu>  of  its  coiistitut'iits  (.'!(),  '.\()h).  It 
tills  l><)«::s  aiitl  lagoons  aud  extends  the  margins 
t»f    lakfs    and    st^as    (32,   H'J^O . 

17<i.  TIh'  jijant  is  a  soil  ini|>r<>\ fr.  It  ojh-iis 
auti  Ittoscns  lianl  soils,  t'siifcially  it",  likf  tlif 
t'li»vt'i-,  it  has  a  ta]>-root,  which  it  scntls  tlt'cjt 
intt>  tilt'  earth.  It  tills  and  hinds  loose  antl 
Icachy    soils.      When     it     tlccays    it    atlds     huiiius 

(.•^5,  :u,  7:;.  74). 

171.  Till'  plant  is  a  st)il  j)rott'ct<>r.  It  ]trt'- 
vcnts  the  wasiiing  of  soils,  and  }>roteets  tho 
sands  of  dnncs  and  shores  fi-oni  the  winds, 
it  holds  the  rainfall  until  it  .soaks  into  the 
soil    (70,  IHJ). 

.1.     ///'     I'linit    in    its    Ii(l(itio}i    to    Clinititf 

17'J.  The  plant  intlueiices  the  nit»isture  siijt- 
ply:  l»y  ni<>dit"yiiig  the  tlistrihution  t>f  precijti- 
tatitin  ;  hy  causing  tiie  retention  of  the  pre- 
cipitation;  hy  lessening  evaporation;  l»y  adding 
moisture    to   the    atmosphere. 

17.'{.  The  plant  inlluenees  tlie  hahitaltleiu'ss 
of  the  earth  hy  other  means  :  as  hy  inotlifying 
•^xtremos     of    t<»mperuture ;     hy    affording    win<l- 


108  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

breaks ;     by  supplying    shade ;    by    contributing 
to  the   beauty  and  variety  of  the  landscape. 

4.    The  Plant  in  its  Relation  to  Animal  Life 

174.  Nearly  all  domestic  animals  live  directly 
on  plants.  These  are  herbivorous  animals,  such 
as  cattle,  horses,  sheep.  But  even  the  flesh 
which  carnivorous  animals  eat— as  dogs,  cats — 
is  directly  or  indirectly  derived  from  herbivo- 
rous  animals  ;    for  "all   flesh   is   grass." 

175.  The  round  of  life  begins  and  ends  with 
the  soil.  The  soil  contributes  to  feeding  the 
plant,  the  plant  feeds  the  animal,  and  the  ani- 
mal passes  at  last  into  the  soil.  In  this  round, 
there  is  no  creation  of  elements,  and  no  loss  ; 
but  there  are  endless  combinations,  and  these 
combinations  break  up  and  pass  away.  To 
raise  the  plant,  therefore,  is  the  primary  effort 
in  agriculture. 


5.   The  Plant  has  Intrinsic  Value  to  Man 

5a.  As  articles  of  food  or  beverage 

176.  Plants  or  plant -products  may  be  staples 
or  necessaries,  as  wheat,  rice,  potatoes,  beans  ; 
semi- staples,  or  articles  of  very  general  and 
common    use,    as    apples,    oranges,    buckwheat ; 


TllK     OFFICKS     OF     THE     PLANT  H)l» 

luxuries  or  accessories,  as  ijuinces,  cauliflowers, 
jj:lass- house  ve«j:etal)les ;  coiuliuients,  as  spices; 
bevt'ra2:e   products,  as   cider,  wine. 

177.  Plants  or  ]tlant-))r(>(lu('ts  may  br  fixxl 
tor  animals,  as  jjrrains,  ground  t'cfd,  fodders. 
f«^ra.LC«'    or    field    pasturage. 

'ift.    .l.s'  (irtichs  itstd   ill   fJn    tirts 

ITS,  Plants  may  atTord  textiles  or  fibers,  as 
cotton,  lii'mj*,  llax,  .jut(»  ;  wood,  lumb«'r  and 
timber  ;    nu'dicines,  as  (juinine,  o])ium,  ginger. 

5(\    As  ardch's  or  objects  to  urdtifij  (tsthrfir  (iisffs 

171b  Plants  are  the  source  of  most  per- 
fumery,   and    of    many    dyes    and    ))aints. 

pso.  Plants  are  themselves  useful  as  orna- 
mental subjects.  They  may  be  grown  for  their 
etleets  as  individuals  or  single  specimens,  as  a 
tree,  a  shrub,  or  a  plant  in  a  pot ;  or  for  their 
effects   in   masses   in   the   land.<eape. 

18P  Plants  are  useful  for  their  flowers  or 
ornamental  fruits.  Tiie  tlt^wers  nuiy  be  desirerl 
in  mass  i-lTects,  as  single  specimen  plants,  or  as 
cut- flowers.  The  growing  of  plants  for  their 
effects  as  indivi<Juals  or  for  cut -flowers  is 
floriculture ;  the  growing  of  them  for  their  com- 
bined or  mass  effects  in  the  open  (or  on  Lho 
lawn)   is   landscape   horticulture  (9). 


110 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER    VII 


170a.    Tap-roots  (Fig.  33)  extend  the  benefits  of  root  aotfon 
to  great  depths.      They  drain,   aerate   and    comminute  the  soil; 


Pig.  33.    The  deep  root-system  of 
red  clover. 


Fig.  34.    The  shallow  root-system 
of  orchard  grass. 


and  the  plant-food  which  they  bring  from  the  subsoil  is  left, 
when  the  plant  decays,  in  such  place  and  condition  that  sur- 
face-rooted plants  can  get  it.  With  the  clover,  compare  a 
grass    (Fig.   34). 

171a.    In   many   countries    definite    efforts   are  made  to    hold 


THK     Ol-KUKS     OF     THK     PLANT  111 

loose  flaiuls  from  drifting  by  wimlH,  ns  tiloii);  tlie  c-ou8tH  of  tli-.- 
son.  Siiiul-loving  pliints  with  strong  running  roots  or  root - 
ritocks — as  various  grasses  and  sedges — are  used  for  this  pur- 
pose. One  of  the  uses  of  windbreaks  is  to  lessen  the  drifting 
of  Bands.  BlulTs  and  railway  embankments  are  often  held  from 
caving  and  washing  by  means  of  strong- rooted   plants. 

17'J<i.  Large  forests  probably  have  some  influence  in  dis- 
tributing the  rainfall,  the  precipitation  tending  to  be  greatest 
near  the  forest  areas.  By  sojue  persons  it  is  thought  that  the 
total  precipitation  is  increased  by  forests,  but  this  point  is  in 
dispute.  The  ofT-tlow  or  outtlow  from  forest -covered,  or  from 
any  plant -covered,  lands  is  more  gradual  than  from  bare  lands; 
thus  floods  are  more  frequent  and  more  serious  the  more  com- 
pletely the  forests  are  removed.  This  is  illustrated  in  the  floods 
on   the  Ohio  and    other  rivers. 

17_fc.  Plants  less«n  evaporation  chiefly  in  the  capacity  of 
shelter- belts.  Windbreaks  check  evaporation  from  adjacent  lands 
(see  King,  "The  Soil,"  pp.  'J04-20G I ;  and  this  is  one  valuable 
effect  of  windbreaks  for  fruit-plantations  in  dry  climates  (see 
Bailey,  "Principles  of  Fruit -Growing,"  pp.  48  ')!.)  Forest  areas 
contribute  some  of  their  moisture  to  the  atmosphere  of  con- 
tiguous areas  ;  and  plants  give  off  moisture  from  their  grow- 
ing parts. 

173a.  For  a  full  discuasior.  of  windbreaks,  see  "Principles 
of   Fruit -Growing,"  pp.  47-ft7,  62-92. 


Chaptee  VIII 
HOW   THE   PLANT   LIVES 

B.  M.  DVGGAR 

1.  The  Plant  Activities 

182.  The  plant  is  a  very  dependent  struc- 
ture: it  must  be  supplied  with  water  and  certain 
soluble  salts  from  the  soil,  oxygen  and  carbon 
dioxid  from  the  air,  in  addition  to  sunlight  and 
a  certain  amount  of  heat.  When  these  con- 
ditions are  fulfilled, — somewhat  as  a  plant's 
ancestors  have  been  accustomed  to  them. — 
the  plant  must  grow,  provided  no  extraneous 
diseases    or   accidents    overtake    it. 

183.  A  growing  plant  is  influenced  by  all 
of  the  external  conditions  about  it, — it  is  sen- 
sitive, or  manifests  irritability.  In  studying 
growth  processes,  we  must  remember  that  these 
processes  are  occurring  in  a  highly  responsive 
living  object,  an  object  with  both  inexplainable 
internal  forces  and  with  processes  most  favor- 
able for  chemical  and  physical  study.  To  study 
how  a  plant  lives,  one  must  consider  the  im- 
portant   factors    of   growth,    actual    growth   phe- 

(112) 


J 


HOW     THK     PI^\NT     LIVES  ll.'i 

uoiiiona,  an<l    oertaiu    other    couditiuiis   to   which 
growth  is  seusitive. 


'2.    The  Factors  of  Growth 
2<J.     Water  in  thr  plant 

184.  The  riijidity  or  stiffnoss  of  any  lierb 
or  suceuk'Hl  part  is  hirgely  depoiuU'iit  on  its 
water  content.  If  a  sueeulent  branch  is  severed, 
it  soon  loses  its  water  by  evaporation,  and  it 
becomes  flaccid,  or  wilte<l.  Tiie  proper  exten- 
sion, or  tnrjLi^idity,  of  the  cells  of  phiiits  witii 
water  is  necessary  for  active  growtli.  The  j>as- 
sage  of  the  soil  water  into  the  plant,  and  there- 
after its  transfer  from  living  cell  to  living  cell, 
is  accomplished  by  the  process  of  osmosis,  which 
is  the  dilTiisioii  of  liriuids  thi'oiigh  nienibi-aiics. 
Much  of  this  water  eventually  reaches  certain 
con(lucting  parts,  or  bundles. 

185.  Surrounding  each  rootlet  for  some  dis- 
tan<'e  back  of  the  tip  is  an  enveloping  growth  of 
delicate  root-hairs.  These  hairs  are  single, 
tubular  cells,  the  outgrowth  of  single  cells  in 
the  outer  layer  of  tlif  root.  Kach  on«»  contains 
within  its  walls,  as  <lo  all  active  cells,  living 
matter  called  protoplasm,  along  with  cell-sap. 
In  the  soil  these  delicate  hairs  push  rea«lily  in 
amongst  the  soil  particles,  covering   an    immense 


114  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

amount  of  space.  Owing  to  the  denser  cell -sap 
of  the  root- hairs  these  hairs  absorb  water  by 
osmosis.  There  are  in  solution  in  the  soil 
water  minute  quantities  of  food  substances,  and 
these  are  absorbed  independently  of  the  relative 
amounts  present.  The  absorptive  activity,  or 
pull,  of  the  root- hairs  is  so  great  that  water  may 
be  extracted  from  a  soil  apparently  dry. 

186.  Plants  contain  much  water;  but  it  re- 
quires oven  temperatures,  about  222°  F.,  to 
drive  out  all  the  water  from  plant  substance. 
The  total  water  in  some  plants,  as  determined 
by  the  chemist,  is  as  follows: 

Dry  clover  seed 6.4  per  cent. 

Dry  beans 12.5  "   " 

Green  apple  twigs 50.0    "      " 

Potato  tubers    ..." 80.0    "      " 

Green  clover  tops 85.0    "       " 

187.  Water  is  absorbed  in  greater  quantity 
than  can  actually  enter  into  the  composition  of 
the  living  plant;  and  the  surplus  water  is  thrown 
off  by  a  process  of  evaporation  known  as  tran- 
spiration. The  water  is  rapidly  transpired  from 
certain  plant  surfaces,  especially  from  the  leaves 
and  green  stems.  The  water  current  is  import- 
ant;   for  example,  it  promptly  distributes  foods. 

188.  Leaves  are  provided  with  thousands  of 
minute  pores  in  the  epidermis,  connecting  with 
the    delicate   tissues    within.      These    pores,    or 


How     rm:    i-lan'T    LIVES  ll") 

ptotnata,  are  especially  abuiidaut  on  tlie  uiuler 
surfaeos  of  most  leaves.  With  changes  in  the 
water  content  of  the  plant,  these  stoniata  open 
or  close,  to  a  dej^reo  fai-ilitating  or  inhibitinj^: 
transjiiration.  Like  evajmration,  tianspiration  is 
hastt'iit'd  by  higher  tenipcralinvs,  dry  air,  wind, 
and  the  movements  of  the  plant.  On  a  very 
hot  day,  or  with  insullicient  soil  moisture,  a 
plant  may  wilt,  due  to  the  fact  that  all  of  the 
facilities  for  cheeking  transjiiration  fail  to  keep 
the  lialance  betwiMMi  root  absorption  and  tian- 
spiration. Th«>  jdaiit  gives  off  more  water  than 
it  tak»'s  up;    therefore,  it  wilts. 

18!).  The  absorptive  activity  of  the  roots  gives 
rise  to  a  sap-  or  root -pressure  which  tends  to 
force  tho  current  upward.  In  fact,  the  lifting 
powor  of  transpiration,  <^smosis,  root-pressure, 
and  otht'r  forces  cause  tln>  crude  sap  to  ascend 
through  th»>  woody  bundles  of  the  plant;  and  by 
in«'ans  of  these  bundles  absorbed  solutions  are 
<'arri«Ml  upward  thi-ough  all  parts  of  root  and 
stom,  and  tiirough  the  leaf-stalk,  veins  and  vrin- 
lets  to  all  parts  of  th»'  l«'af. 

26.    Soluble  salts  from   fht'  soil 

190.  Along  with  the  soil  water  absor})ed  l)y 
the  roots,  minute  quantities  of  the  various  min- 
eral salts  necessary  for  plant  growth  aro  tnk»'n 
in.     Thos«'   salts   are   in   solution.      In    tin'   ]>Iant, 


116  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

these  solutions  become  a  part  of  the  ascending 
sap,  and  they  are  diffused  to  all  parts  where 
assimilation  goes  on.  Plants  possess  a  certain 
selective  absoiption,  yet  soil  elements  not  utilized 
by  the  plant  are  also  absorbed  in  greater  or 
less  quantity  depending  on  whether  or  not  de- 
posited in  inert  form.  Carbonic  acid,  and  per- 
haps other  substances  excreted  by  the  root,  aid 
in  dissolving  some  of  the  mineral  salts  (30). 

191.  Various  substances  are  taken  in  with 
the  soil  water.  Sodium  and  potassium  nitrate 
(nitre),  calcium  phosphate  (phosphate  of  lime), 
and  potassium  sulfate  are  well-known  ingredients 
of  fertilizers.  Chemical  analysis  and  experiments 
show  that  from  these  and  allied  salts  the  plant 
obtains  from  the  soil  such  necessary  elements  as 
nitrogen,  potassium,  phosphorus,  calcium,  and 
sulfur.  In  addition,  plants  also  secure  from  the 
soil  traces  of  iron,  and  whatever  magnesium,  sili- 
con, and  other  mineral  elements  maybe  necessary. 

192.  When  a  plant  is  burned  in  air,  the  ash 
contains  all  of  the  above-named  elements  except 
the  nitrogen  and  a  part  of  the  sulfur  and  phos- 
phorus. Nitrogen,  one  of  the  most  important  of 
plant- foods,  can  be  used  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
nitrates,  except  in  the  case  of  leguminous  plants 
(110,  138) ,  in  which  it  is  also  taken  from  the  air  in 
some  obscure  way  by  bacteria  of  the  root  tubercles. 


HOW     THK     PLANT      M\KS  117 

2c.    Oxygen 

19.'}.  OxycT^^n  is  pssontial  to  all  of  tho  lifo  ]>ro- 
cessos  in  tlu*  {)lant,  as  wrll  as  to  tlio  animal.  I*'or 
j)orfoct  pjerniinatioii  oxyircn  is  rcMjuircd,  and  this 
^as  (litTust'S  into  and  is  us«hI  by  all  Iivin<;  or  «^rii\v- 
iniT  plant  organs.  The  stoniata  of  Icavos  and 
slioots  aro  ineohanisnis  insnriiiu:  an  ado()nat«^ 
snpply  for  thfsc  parts.  P^iitrrniir  these  stoniata, 
it  is  readily  ditTused  throui,di<»iit  the  ntMLrhhoriiiLr 
ct'lls  and  tissues. 

1I»4.  Oxyp:en  is  thru  constantly  "  ahsoihcd," 
and  associated  with  this  absorption  is  the  givinj^ 
otT  of  carbon  tlioxid.  This  ai»])ropriation  of 
oxyL(<'n  and  escape  of  carbon  dioxid  are  results 
of  respiration,  a  process  equivalent  in  its  ])ui'- 
pose  and  results  to  respiration  in  animals.  Vounir 
pn^wini;  ])]ants  absorb  an  amount  of  oxyjj^cn  about 
equal  to  their  volume,  in  from  twenty-four  t«> 
thirty-six  hoiu's.  (fermimitinpf  seeds  absorb  oxy- 
gen, and  give  off  ordinarily  about  an  e(|ual  (pian- 
tity  of  carbon  dioxid. 

1!).').  (lerminating  seeds,  opening  flower  bii<ls. 
parts  of  plants  that  inive  been  injured,  and  cer- 
tain organs  in  whicli  decay  is  inuninent,  resjure 
more  rapidly  than  other  parts.  Respiration  prac- 
tically represents  molecular  chang*'  an<l  the  re- 
lease of  energy  in  the  living  substance. 

ion.  Oxyir«n»  is  also  taken  in  throuirh  the 
roots.     Land  plants,  whose  roots  are  deprived  of 


118  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

their  air  by  too  much  water,  are  soon  suffocated. 
This  is  especially  noticeable  in  a  field  of  Indian 
corn  or  maize  which  has  been  overflowed ;  and  it 
is  also  a  condition  frequently  met  with  in  those 
greenhouses  where  an  abundant  use  of  water  is 
the  first  rule.  Many  plants  which  have  become 
accustomed  to  boggy  regions,  and  many  green- 
house plants,  send  up  to  the  surface  numerous 
root  formations  in  response  to  a  need  of  fresh 
air,  or  oxygen. 

2d.    Carbon  dioxid  and  sunlight 

197.  The  element  that  is  present  in  greatest 
amount  in  plants  is  carbon.  This  material  is 
derived  in  green  plants  from  the  carbon  dioxid 
(or  carbonic  acid  gas)  of  the  air. 

198.  In  order  to  become  plant-food,  the  car- 
bon dioxid  of  the  air  first  diffuses  into  the  leaves ; 
then  its  utilization  depends  on  the  green  color- 
ing matter  of  leaves,— or  the  chlorophyll, — and 
on  sunlight.  The  chlorophyll  absorbs  some  of 
the  energy  of  sunlight,  and  by  means  of  the 
energy  thus  provided,  there  is  effected  a  rear- 
rangement of  the  atoms  of  carbon  dioxid  and 
water,  such  that  sugar,  and  ultimately  starch, 
may  be  produced  and  some  oxygen  is  set  free. 
This  process  of  the  formation  of  plant-food  from 
carbon  dioxid  and  water,  with  the  consequent 
giving   off   of   oxygen,  is    photosynthesis    (some- 


HOW     THE     PLANT     LIVES  110 

tiint»s  known  as  carbon  assimilation).  It  is  in 
its  results  the  reverse  of  respiration,  in  which 
oxy.ii:iMi  is  taken  in  and  carl)on  <lioxid  given  ulY. 
]\M).  During  the  day  a  nui«*h  greater  amount 
of  oxygen  is  set  free  as  a  result  of  photosynthesis 
than  that  used  in  respiration,  so  that  a  surplus 
of  oxygen  actually  diffuses  into  the  air,  and  plants 
are  said  to  })urify  the  air.  At  night,  no  photo- 
synthesis goes  on,  and  the  chief  end-])roduct  of 
respiration,  carbon  dioxid,  is  given  off,  and  may 
be  deinonstrated  by  experiment. 

2'.    II' lit,  !>}•  (I  (h finite  trmperature 

'JOO.  II. 'at  increases  the  absori)tive  activity  of 
thf  roots,  the  rat(^  of  transpiration,  the  amount  of 
res]>iration,  and  the  pro<lucts  of  photosynthesis. 

201.  A  more  or  less  definite  degree  of  heat 
is  necessary  for  all  living  jjrocesses.  As  a  rule, 
sc.'ds  will  not  germinate  at  the  freezing  point, 
and  all  growth  is  susj)ended  at  that  temperatuif. 
Plants  grow  l)est  within  a  very  small  range  of 
temperature,  known  as  the  optimum  temi)er:i- 
ture.  As  a  rule,  otiier  conditions  being  equal, 
plants  of  moist  tropical  regions  are  succulent,  and 
green  tissues  preponderate.  In  th«'  frigid  regions 
th«  softer  green  parts  arc  greatly  reduce*!,  and, 
while  the  woody  |>art  is  of  less  extent  than  in 
tlie  temperate  region'?,  relatively  it  preponderates. 

'JO'J.    Different  j)lants  are  injured   by  different 


120  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

temperatures.  Such  plants  as  cotton  and  the 
melon  are  killed  by  a  temperature  several  degrees 
above  freezing.  The  living  protoplasm  is  stimu- 
lated to  give  up  its  water,  the  roots  are  chilled 
and  cannot  supply  to  the  leaves  that  water  nec- 
essary to  offset  transpiration,  and,  as  a  result, 
the  leaves  soon  wilt  and  blacken.  On  the  other 
hand,  even  the  green  parts  of  some  plants  will 
withstand  freezing  temperatures.  The  ability  to 
resist  cold  depends  primarily  on  the  response 
of  the  protoplasm,  its  capacity  to  give  up  water  in 
freezing  without  injury,  together  with  the  power 
of  reabsorption  on  thawing. 

3.    The  Processes  of  Growth 

203.  The  starch  that  may  result  from  photo- 
synthesis or  the  use  of  carbon  dioxid  is  stored  in 
the  leaves  during  the  day,  and  at  night  it  may  be 
entirely  removed  and  used  after  being  converted 
into  a  soluble  substance,  sugar.  Some  of  this 
sugar  is  directly  used  in  building  up  more  complex 
compounds  used' in  growth,  and  some  of  it  is  again 
converted  into  starch  and  stored  in  tubers,  stems, 
or  thickened  leaves,  for  future  growth  purposes. 

204.  The  external  evidences  of  growth  are 
changes  in  form  and  size  of  the  different  parts. 
The  internal  evidences  of  growth  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  differentiation  of  the  individual  cells  of  which 


H(nv     THE     PLANT     I-IVES  I'J  I 

tlio  plant  is  cniiiposod,— now  cells  are  made,  and 
others  are  niodilifd  in  size  or  form.  It  is  |Mf>K- 
ably  imi)(»ssii»l»'  t"nr  a  plant  to  live  without  j^i-ow- 
iui::;  hut  under  jfoor  conditions  the  growth  may  he 
so  slii^ht  tiiat  the  plant  is  no  longer  of  any  use 
to  the  farmer. 

20.').  The  younii:  stcMiis  of  many  j>lants  elongate 
throughout  the  «-nlire  length  of  the  growing 
part.  I^ut  the  lower  part  soon  i-eaehes  the  limit 
of  its  growth,  the  rear  internode — oi-  s))ae('  hc- 
tween  the  j(^ints — ceases  to  elongate,  ami  fiiithei- 
growth  in  length  jiroeeeds  only  in  the  newei-  jiails 
al>ove.  That  is,  while  there  is  an  elongation  or 
stretching  of  the  shoot  itself,  this  elongation 
gradually  Ics.sens  below,  so  that  the  region  of 
most  rapid  growth  is  constantly  in  the  freslu'st 
and  softest  part  of  the  shoot.  Notice  that  the 
distance  between  the  joints  in  growing  slioots 
tends  for  a  time  to  increase. 

'2^Wy.  The  root  grows  differently.  The  tip  of 
the  gr<^wing  root  is  hai'd,  being  protected  by  what 
is  known  as  a  root-caj>.  (trowth  in  lenirth  takev 
place  jnst  beliind  this  hard  tip,  not  tlir<Mighout 
the  lenirth  of  the  growitig  part.  The  root,  tliere- 
fore,   is    able    t(^    ]>ush    its   way  around    obstacles. 

'J()7.  In  most  of  our  woody  i>lants,  increase  in 
diameter  is  effected  by  a  layer  of  growing  tissue, 
the  cambium,  located  just  beneath  the  bark;  and 
every  vear  it  gives  rise  to  a  new  layer  of  wo(»d  on 


122  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

the  outside  of  the  old  wood,  and  to  a  new  layer 
of  bark  on  the  inside  of  the  old  bark.  Thus  the 
heart- wood  is  the  oldest  wood,  and  the  outside 
bark  constantly  breaking  off  is  the  oldest  bark. 
The  interior  wood  takes  less  and  less  part  in  the 
activities  of  the  plant,  and  the  heart -wood  of 
trees  is  nearly  useless  except  as  a  support  to 
the  plant. 

4.  Irritability 

'208.  Growing  parts  are  sensitive  or  responsive. 
This  responsiveness  or  irritability  may  be  called 
forth  by  diverse  external  forces,  and  is  manifest 
in  definite  movements,  in  growth  reactions,  and 
in  complex  internal  changes. 

209.  Some  plants  make  visible  movements, 
and  may  even  be  sensitive  to  shocks.  The 
sensitive -plant  suddenly  closes  its  leaves  and 
droops  when  touched  ;  the  leaves  of  sun -dew 
and  other  insectivorous  plants  close  upon  their 
prey;  and  the  tendril  of  the  gourd  gradually 
bends  around  the  object  it  touches. 

210.  Green  parts  turn  towards  the  light,  and 
assimilation  is  thereby  increased.  Plants  in 
windows  turn  the  broad  surfaces  of  their  leaves 
perpendicular  to  the  incoming  rays  of  light ; 
and  a  seedling  grown  under  a  box  into  which 
light  is  admitted  through  a  single  slit  will  grow 


UOW     THK     F'LANT     I.IVES  123 

directly  towards  that  slit,  and  t'Vim  ihrouLrli  it 
to  tlu»   liriirlitt-r  lii^lit. 

211.  Plants  aro  smsiiivt'  to  gravitation,  Tlio 
llrst  root  of  tli«>  gerniinatin*^  s«>ed  is  so  st'nsitivo 
to  gravity  that  it  ordinarily  p'ows  downward, 
whorevor  it  may  Im^  and  whatever  may  be  its 
position.  On  the  other  hand,  the  first  shoot  is 
oppositely  atYected  by  gravity,  and  if  a  potted 
seedling  is  placed  liorizontally  thf  stem  soon 
directs  itself  upwar<l.  Whilf  its  g.'iicral  tcnd- 
t'ney  is  downward,  the  root  is  nevertheless 
attracted  in  any  direction  by  the  presence  of 
water. 

'2\'2.  The  reactions  of  i)lants  to  their  environ- 
ments or  surronndings  may  cause  the  plants  to 
vary,  or  to  assume  new  I'nrms  or  characteristics; 
and  these  new  features  may  be  of  use  to  the 
farmer.  Thus,  with  more  light,  the  better  are 
the  roses  or  carnations  grown  un<ler  glass;  the 
rii'ht-r  the  soil,  the  stronger  is  the  gi-owth  ;  the 
hi<rli«'r  the  altitude  or  latitude,  the  gi'eater  is  the 
projmrtion  of  dwarf  plants. 

SCGGESTIOSS    oy    rnAPTHIl    mi 

182a.    A  salt  \n  the  nuhtitanre  formed  from  the  nnton  of  an  aoid 

with  gome  inorganio  8ul>Htiiiico  or  bane.     The  8nlt  mnr  b»  ncutml, 

-  neither  nrid  nor   alkaline.     Thus   sulfuric  aoid  niid  lime  fnnii 

the  flnlt.  iiulfnte  of  lini*'  or  ir\*psum :    nitric  aoid  and  oaiintio  «odn 

form  the  aalt   nitrate  of  soda;    muriatic  (hydrochloric)  acid  and 


124  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 

caustic  potash  form  muriate  of  potash  ;  muriate  acid  and  caustic  soda 
form  muriate  of  soda,  which  is  commonly  known  as  salt, — that  is, 
it  is  common  salt. 

184a.  From  a  potato  tuber  which  has  lain  in  the  air  until 
somewhat  wilted,  cut  circular  segments  about  one-fourth  of  an 
inch  or  less  in  thickness.  Place  some  of  these  pieces  in  water, 
and   others    in   strong   salt    solution.     In   a  short  time   those   in 

water  become  more  rigid,  while 
those  in  strong  salt  water  become 
flaccid.  The  cell -sap  of  the  po- 
tato, containing  some  salts  and 
sugars  in  solution,  is  a  denser 
solution  than  the  water,  and  the 
flow  of  water  is  inward  to  the 
denser  solution;  hence  the  pieces 
absorb  water.  Of  those  pieces  in 
strong  salt  solution  the  flow  of 
water  is  outward,  and  the  potato 
segments  lose  some  of  their  watei 
and  become  flaccid.  See  Atkin- 
son's   "Elementary    Botany,"   pp. 

13-18. 
Fig.  35.    Root-hairs,  enlarged.  . 

18aa.  A  cross-section  of  a  root- 
let in  Fig.  35  shows  the  root  hairs.  These  hairs  are  seen  to  be 
prolongations  of  the  outer  or  epidermal  cells. 

185^.  By  germinating  a  bean,  pumpkin  seed,  or  wheat  in 
moss,  or  between  folds  of  moist  thick  cloth,  the  root-hairs  may 
be  observed.  Fig.  36  shows  the  fringe  of  hairs  on  such  a  seed- 
ling ;  and  Fig.  37  shows  how  the  root- hairs  attach  the  soil 
particles  to  the  root.  For  a  longer  account  of  root -structures 
and  root-action,  compare  Sorauer,  "Physiology  of  Plants  for  the 
Use  of   Gardeners,"  pp.  4-7. 

186a.  Any  one  who  has  handled  both  green  and  dry  fodder 
has  a  general  idea  of  how  much  water  there  may  be  in  plants. 
Why  do  apples  and  grapes  and  cabbages  shrivel  after  they  are 
picked  ? 

188a.     A  single   epidermal  pore  is   a  stoma  or  stomate.     The 


HOW     THK     I'LANT     lJVT.fi. 


125 


plnrnl  is  stomata  or  ntomntfB.  Fi>r.  'AS  bLowb  n  frnpmont  of  leaf 
iit  cross- ^'ot ion,  a  boinj;  a  Ktoma  opening  out  on  the  lowt-r  sur- 
face. Looking;  down  upon  the 
peeled-ofT  epidt-miis  of  the  lower 
surface,  stonmta  are  seen  at  Fip.  39. 
I88b.  Cut  off  a  leafy  branch  of 
any  herh,  insert  the  stem  through 
a  perforated  cork  into  a  bottle  <jf 
water,  and  then  place  the  whole 
under  a  bell -glass.  Note  how  soon 
the  water  vapor  thrown  off  condenses 
upon  the  plass.  Compare  Fig.  10, 
page  58. 
lnHc.  The  rate  of  tran  W 
spiration  from  a  single  leaf  Vv 
may  be  accurately  obser^'ed 
as  follows  :  A  large  U- 
shaped  glass  tube  is  filled 
with  water,  and  into  one  end 
of  this  tube  is  inserted  a 
perforated  cork  bearing  a 
small  glass  tube  or  capillary 
arm,  bent  at  right  angles. 
In  the  other  end  of  the  U- 
tube  is  fitted  a  cork,  through 
the  perforation  in  which  is 
inserted  the  leaf-stalk,  with  the  stem  reaching 
the  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  40.  When  this  last 
■'ork  is  forced  in,  water  will  fill  the  capillary  arm: 
and  the  reccsaioD  of  the  water  in  this  arm  to 
supply  that  transpired  shows  the  rate  of  tran- 
spiration. Wax  or  parafUn  sboold  b«  usmI  to  S4^al 
around  tho  perforations. 

189rt.    lioot-pressure  or  sap-pressure,  may  he 

made  evident  roughlv  by  a  verv  simple  experiment. 

"     •       .      '        J  ,  Fl*.  ST.    How  tb« 

An  inch  or  so  above  ground,  cut  off  a  stem  of  some      ^^  adhnrwi  to 

artirely-growing    herbaceous    plant,    as    the    sun-       th*  yoons tool. 


Kig.  34.  The  root-liaim 
«•  M^n  un  ft  dark, 
damp  cloth. 


126 


THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AORICULTURE 


flower.  Fit  tightly  over  this  stub  a  few  inches  of  rubber  tubing, 
partially  filling  the  tubing  with  water,  and  into  the  free  end  fit 
closely  a  small  glass  tube  several  feet  long,  supporting  the  tube 
by  a  stake.  In  a  few  hours  water  will  begin  to  rise  in  the  glass 
tube.  This  pressure  in  the  common  nettle  may  sustain  a  column 
of  water  over  ten  feet  in  height,  and  in  the  grape-vine  a  column 
more  than  thirty  feet  in  height.  It  is  inapplicable  for  plants  that 
force  up  only  a  small  volume  of  water  under  high  pressure. 

1896.  The  sap  ascends  through  the  young  woody  parts, — 
the  sap-wood  in  our  common  trees,  and  not  between  the  bark  and 
wood,    as    commonly    sujiposed.      To   note    the    special    channels 


Fig.  38.     Cross-sectiou  of  a  leaf.     Stoma  at  a. 


Pig.  39.     Four  stomata. 


through  which  sap  ascends,  secure  a  few  joints  of  green  corn, 
a  blade  of  celery,  a  leaf  of  canna,  and  some  woody  branch,  and 
put  the  stem  ends  into  a  tumbler  with  a  solution  of  some  red 
dye  or  stain,  preferably  eosin  or  fuchsin.  Often  in  the  course 
of  a  few  hours  there  is  external  evidence  that  the  colored  liquid 
ascends  through  definite  channels,  at  least  with  the  succulent 
herbs.  Now  cut  off  the  stems  and  note  the  colored  regions, — 
in  the  corn  those  thread-like  groups  of  fibers  so  noticeable  when 
an  old  cornstalk  is  broken  ;  in  the  celery,  likewise,  through  those 
stringy  fibers  known  to  all  who  have  eaten  tough  celery  ;  and 
in  woody  plants,  through  the  layers  of  wood  nearest  the  bark. 

190a.  For  fuller  discussions  of  the  sub.jeets  outlined  in  190 
and  191,  consult  Sorauer,  "Physiology  of  Plants  for  the  Use  of 
Gardeners,"  pp.   30-44,  48-51. 


HOW     THK     I'LANT     LIVES 


V2: 


194rt.  Air  in  which  seeds  have  been  germinating  has  suffered 
a  chanire;  this  can  be  shown  in  the  following  manner:— Fill  a 
larjje-mouthed  bottle  half  full  with  soaked  beans  or  peas,  add  a 
small  quantity  of  water,  and  cork  it.  After  twenty-four  hours, 
pa«8  a  lighted  wax  taper  or  waxed  eord  into  the  jar,  and  it  will  be 

extinguished.  Make  the  same 
tests  in  a  jar  of  air,  and  see  that 
the  taper  burns.  This  is  a  striking 
change.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the 
genniiiafion  has  increased  the 
amount  of  carbon  dioxid  and  di- 
minished the  amount  of  oxygen, 


but  other  iiinro  eliilionite  experi- 
ments would  be  needed  to  show 
how  we  know  that  these  are  the 
gases  affected. 

19Ga.  For  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  of  wet  soils  to  oxy- 
gen-absorption, read  Sorauer, 
pp.    77-80. 

VJ6h.  The  "cypress 
knees "  which  project 
from  the  wafer  in  cypress 
swamps  in  the  South  are 
supposed  to  be  aerating 
organs. 

I97(i.  If  a  plant  is 
burned  in  the  air,  the  resulting  ash  is  very  small;  but  if  burned 
without  free  access  of  air,  an  in  a  charcoal  pit,  there  remains 
u  charred  mass  almost  aa  great  in  volume  as  the  substance 
burned.  This  mans  is  largely  carlton,  a  most  imfiortant  element 
in  all  living  matter,  or  protoplasm.  In  combination  with  the 
elements  of  water,  carl»on  also  forms  most  of  the  cellular  tissue 
of  plants,  likewise  the  starches  and  the  nugam,  all  of  which  are 
called  cnrlK)hydmtes.  The  manufacture  of  these  stan-h-like  com- 
pounds by  the  appropriation  of  the  carbon   dioxid    of   the  air  is 


Kl(.  4<>.     Mi>anji  of  ithDwIug  iran«pinitlnii. 


128 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 


one  of  the  peculiarities  of  green  plants;  and  animals  depend  on 
plants  for  the  preliminary  preparation  of  these  necessary  com- 
pounds. 

198a.    The  word  assimilation  is  sometimes  used  in  this  restricted 

sense  in  plants,  as  defined  in 
198.  In  general  speech  it 
means  the  appropriation  of 
prepared  or  digested  food,  as 
the  assimilation  of  the  food 
by  the  blood,  or  protoplasm. 

1966.  Chlorophyll  is  the 
green  coloring  matter  of 
plants.  It  looks  to  be  in  the 
form  of  minute  grains.  Most 
of  the  cells  in  Fig.  38  contain 
chlorophyll  grains. 

198c.  Plant-food,  in  the 
sense  in  which  the  term  is 
here  used,  is  a  product  of  pho- 
tosynthesis,—sugar,  starch  or 
some  similar  material.  In 
common  speech  the  term  food 
is  used  to  designate  anj'^  ma- 
terial taken  in  and  ultimately 
used  by  the  plant,  as  nitrates, 
potash,  water;  and  a  general 
use  of  the  term  is  so  well 
established  that  it  cannot  be 
overthrown. 

198(7.    For  further   light  on 
assimilation,  compare   Arthur 
and       MacDougal,       "Living 
Plants  and  Their  Properties,"  pp.  145-152. 

199a.  Place  under  a  funnel  in  a  deep  beaker,  containing 
fresh  spring  or  stream  water,  growing  bits  of  water-weed 
(Elodea  Canadensis),  and  invert  over  the  end  of  the  funnel  a  test- 
tube  filled  with  water,  as  in  Fig.  41 .     In  the  sunlight  bubbles  of 


Fig.  41.   Experiment  to  show  the  giving 
off  of  oxygen. 


H(i\V      IHi;     I'LANT     LIVES 


129 


gns  will  be  seon  to  ri«e  and  collect  in  the  tube.  If  a  sufTieient 
qiiniitiiy  of  tliis  pas  coulil  be  qiiii-kiy  collected,  on  testing  it 
with  a  lighted  tapt-r  the    tlame  would    be  seen    to   quicken  per- 


^• 


W 


f 'f.  42     Ot>*nlm{  of 
k  bad  of  {war 


Fie.  4.1.    The  marking  of  tho  ktcm  aod 
the  •preadlns  apart  of  the  marki. 


ceptii>!y,  indioatinjf  more  oxypen  than  is  contained  in  the  air 
In  this  caao  tho  carbon  dioxid  used  is  in  solution  in  the  water. 
The    Eloden  is  rnniinon    in  still  ponds. 

'201(1.  On  the  subject  of  tenipernture  and  plant  life,  compare 
Bailey,  "The  Sunivnl  of  tho  Unlike,"  pp.  44-48,  Chapters  xvji. 
and  xix.;    and  Chapter  xiii.  of  Oaye's  "Great   World's  Farm." 

202<i.    Compare   Arthur  and   MacDougal.  "  Living   Plants  ana 
their  Properties,"   pp.  8:>-98,  for  ■     i     .....;....  ..f  .v.„   influence  of 

eold   in    injurinf;    plants. 

203a.    To  test  for  starch  in  a    poiuio  tuoer  or  other  atoragv 


I 


130 


THE    PJttXCIPUJS    OF    AGRICULTI-KE 


orggOL,  spread  a  drop  of  tinetoie  of  iodine  on  tiie  eat  smfaee. 
and  the  blue  or  violet  eolor  indicates  tlie  xneaenee  of  stareh. 
Test  the  lanndiy  starch. 

203&.    To  determine  that  stareh  is  formed 

onlv  in  the  green  parts  of  leaves,  seenre  a 

'  —zih  white,  like  a  eolens  or  geranium, 

.  me  hoars  in  sonlig^.    Plaee  it  in  hot 

olor  disappears,  sad  thea  add  some 

•h   -WCT^   arr^*-n    »»»•  eolOFCd   Tiolct- 

rarts  are  on- 

rk    eloth    for 

rch  aty- 

:.__    :_^   ._.   _.    ...     -  -^  of  the 

.-aaed   in   sanlisL*. 


.es  are  foreeti 


\ 


/ 


\l 


^  at  A  in  F\^ 


00      %MMtS     ^A^ . 


now     THK     l-LANT     LIVKS  131 

The  stora,  therefore,  has  Rrown  throuRliout  its  lenplh  rather  than 
from  the  end.  —  Jimlry,  "  Ltssonn  trUh   I'lauts"  p.  5^2 . 

«06<i.  Geriuimite  a  sqiiush  Bet-d  between  layers  of  blotting-paper 
or  cloth.  When  the  root  has  grown  an  int-h  or  two  lay  the  plantlet 
ou  H  piece  of  paper.  Then  lay  a  rule  nlongHide  of  it,  and  make 
a  mark  (with  indelible  ink)  one-quarter  of  an  ineh,  or  leus,  from 
the  tip,  and  two  or  three  other  marks  at  equal  distances  above 
Fig.  44  >.  Now  carefully  replace  the  seed.  Two  days  later, 
examine  it;  we  shall  most  likely  find  a  condition  something  like 
that  in  F'lg.  4.'k  It  will  be  seen  that  the  minks  E,  C,  B,  are  prac- 
tically the  same  distance  apart  as  before,  and  they  are  also  the 
same  distance  from  the  peg,  A  A.  The  point  of  the  root  is  no 
longer  at  I)  I),  however,  but  has  moved  on  to  F. — Bailey,  '^Lessons 
u-ith  Plants,"  p.  .?.»/." 

207a.  We  now  see  that  the  "sap"  of  trees  is  a  very  complex 
substance.  It  is  the  juice  or  liquid  in  the  plant.  The  liquid 
which  first  comes  in  at  the  root  is  water,  with  very  dilute  pro- 
portions of  various  substances.  But  the  sap  also  carries  the 
products  of  as><iinilation  to  all  parts  of  the  plant,  to  build  up  the 
tissues.  In  common  speech,  the  upward-moving  wafer,  recently 
taken  in  from  the  soil,  and  known  as  the  "  transpiratifin  stream,'" 
is  often  called  crude  sap;  and  the  liquid  carrying  sugars  and 
other  organic  compounds  is  called  elaborated  sap. 

20'ki.  See  the  discussions  and  pictures  of  moving  parts  in 
Bailey's  "Lessons  with  Plants."  pp.  :i96-40fi;  also  Barnes'  "Plant 
Life,"  pp.  188-JOH:  Atkinson's  "Elementary  Botany."  pp.  82-9*2; 
Arthur  and  MHcDongal's  "Living  Plants,"  Chapters  i.-iv.,  and 
other  botanical  treatises. 


Chaptek   IX 
THE    PROPAGATION    OF    PLANTS 

1.    The   Kinds  of  Propagation 

213.  Plants  naturally  propagate  by  two  gen- 
eral means, —  by  seeds  and  by  buds.  All  the 
modes  of  the  propagatmg  of  plants  employed  by 
the  farmer  and  gardener  are  but  modifications 
of  these  two  general  types. 

214.  The  farmer  has  three  objects  in  view  in 
the  propagation  of  plants :  to  renew  the  genera- 
tion, or  to  prevent  the  stock  from  dying  out ;  to 
increase  the  number  of  plants ;  to  perpetuate  a 
particular  variety.  Thus,  the  farmer  must  resow 
his  wheat,  or  he  will  lose  the  stock ;  but  he  ex- 
pects to  secure  more  plants  than  were  concerned 
in  the  production  of  the  seed  which  he  sows ; 
and  he  also  expects  to  reap  a  particular  variety, 
as  Diehl  or  Mediterranean. 

215.  Seeds  are  always  able  to  preserve  the 
race  or  stock  and  to  increase  the  number  of 
plants,  but  they  are  not  always  able  to  produce 
the  variety  which  bore  them.  Most  farm  crops 
and   most   garden   vegetables    reproduce   the  va- 

(132) 


THE     PROPAGATION     OF     PLANTS  I'VA 

riety  from  seeds  ;  hut  most  tViiits  and  trees  and 
shrubs  do  not,  and  in  sucli  eases  recourse 
is  had  to  bud  jjropagation,  as  layers,  cuttings, 
jrrafts. 

-.    Sci'dacje,  or    /'ropaf/dtioN    hi/   Seeds 
■J'/,    h'l  i/iiisif>  s   nf  (jtrnniiiition 

"Jib.  in  order  that  seeds  shall  pM-niinate,  the 
seeds  tlifmsclvt^s  nnist  be  vialtle  (or  "good"). 
Vialtiiily  dt'pt'uds  ui>nii  (n)  tlif  maturity  of  the 
seeds,  (/>)  fr»»shnt'ss, —  tliey  shall  not  have  lost 
th«Mr  vitality  throuirh  ag*', —  (')  the  vigor  and 
geinM-al  ht»althfuln»'ss  i^i  the  plant  which  bore 
the  seeds,  {d)  jimpri-  conditions  of  storage. 

217.  {h)  TIjc  length  of  time  during  which 
see<ls  retain  their  vitality  varies  with  the  kind  of 
plant  and  with  the  con<iitions  under  which  the 
seeds  were  gi-own.  That  is,  there  is  a  normal 
vitality  and  an  incidental  vitality.  Most  seeds 
germinate  best  when  not  m()n'  than  one  or  two 
years  old,  but  n'taiii  stiong  vitality  three  or 
four  years  ;  but  some  seeds,  notably  those  of 
onions  and  parsnips,  are  usually  not  safe  after 
a    year   old. 

■_Ms.  In  order  that  s»'cds  shall  germinate, 
they  nnisi  also  have  projM'r  surrounding  con- 
ditions:   niuisture,  free  oxygen  (uir;,  warmth. 


134  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

219.  The  ideal  condition  of  the  seed-bed,  so 
far  as  water  is  concerned,  is  that  it  shall  be 
moist,  not  wet.  Wet  soil  injures  seeds,  largely 
by  excluding  oxygen.  The  older  and  weaker  the 
seeds,  the  greater  is  the  necessity  for  care  in 
applying  water :  they  should  be  kept  only 
slightly  moist  until  germination  is  well  started. 
The  soaking  of  seeds  starts  the  germinating  pro- 
cesses, but  it  should  not  be  continued  above 
twenty- four  hours,  as  a  rule,  and  should  not 
be  employed  with  very  weak  seeds. 

220.  Oxygen  is  supplied  to  germinating  seeds 
if  sufficient  air  is  allowed  to  reach  them  ;  and 
the  air  reaches  them  if  they  are  not  planted  too 
deep,  nor  kept  too  wet,  nor  the  soil  allowed  to 
''bake."  But  all  these  conditions  are  greatly 
modified  by  the  kind  of  soil. 

221.  For  each  kind  of  seed  there  is  a  certain 
degree  of  warmth  under  which  it  will  germinate 
to  the  best  advantage ;  and  this  is  called  the 
optimum  temperature  for  that  seed.  The  opti- 
mum temperature  is  not  uniform  or  exact,  but 
ranges  through  a  limit  of  five  to  ten  degrees. 
^  eds  of  most  hardy  plants — as  wheat,  oats,  rye, 
lettuce,  cabbage,  and  wild  plants — germinate  best 
in  temperatures  between  45°  and  65°;  those  of 
tender  vegetables  and  conservatory  plants,  be- 
tween 60°  and  80°;  those  of  tropical  plants, 
between  75°  and  95°. 


THE  PKOPAUATION  OF  PLANTS         135 

'2b.    The   raisimj  of  seedlings 

2'J2.  Tho  'u\o'd\  soil  in  which  to  plant  seeds  is 
loose  and  friable,  does  not  "l)ake,''  and  is  reten- 
tive of  moisture.  It  is  neitht'i-  hard  day  nor 
loose  sand. 

'Jl23.  The  looser  the  soil,  the  deeper  the  seeds 
may  be  planted,  since  the  plantlets  can  easily 
push  throui^h  tiir  eai-tli  ;  and  the  deeper  the 
planting  the  more  uiiit'orm  is  the  moisture.  For 
set^ls  of  medium  size  and  of  strong  germinating 
power, — as  wheat,  cabbage,  apple, — a  quarter  or 
half  inch  is  sufficient  depth.  In  order  to  secure 
moisture  about  the  seeds,  the  earth  should  l)e 
firme<l  or  packed  over  them,  i)artieularly  in  a  dry 
time  ;  i)ut  this  sm-faee  earth  is  moist  because 
water  is  jiassimr  through  it  into  the  air  (lO.'J, 
104). 

-2\.  The  smaller  the  seed,  the  shallower 
-ijiould  it  be  .sown,  as  a  rule,  .iiid  the  greater 
should  be  the  care  in  sowing.  \"ery  small  seeds, 
as  those  of  begonia,  should  be  merely  jtressed 
into  the  earth,  and  tlie  sin-face  is  then  kept 
moist  by  shading,  laying  on  a  paper,  eloth  or 
irlass,  or  by  very  <'arefnl  watering.  Melicate 
seeds  are  often  sown  on  the  surfa<'e  of  well-lirme<l 
soil,  and  are  then  lightly  covered  by  sifting  s(»il 
'•r  dry  moss  over  them.  Ke.'p  them  shaded  until 
irermination  is  well  i.»rogressed. 


136  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTORE 

225.  Seeds  may  regerminate.  That  is,  if 
germination  is  arrested  by  drought,  the  process 
may  be  renewed  when  congenial  conditions  recm% 
even  though  the  young  root  may  be  dried  and 
dead.  This  is  true  of  wheat,  oats,  maize,  pea, 
onion,  buckwheat,  and  other  seeds.  Some  seeds 
have  been  known  to  resume  germination  five 
and  six  times,  even  when  the  rootlet  had  grown 
half  an  inch  or  more  and  the  seeds  had  been 
thoroughly   dried   after   each   regermination. 

226.  Bony  and  nut -like  seeds  must  generally 
be  softened  by  lying  long  in  the  earth ;  and 
the  softening  and  splitting  of  the  coverings  is 
hastened  by  freezing.  Such  seeds  are  peach 
pits,  walnuts,  haws,  and  most  tree  seeds.  Gar- 
deners bury  such  seeds  in  earth  in  the  fall,  and 
plant  them  the  following  spring.  The  seeds  are, 
also,  often  mixed  with  sand,  or  placed  between 
layers  of  sand  in  a  box,  and  if  the  seeds  are 
from  hardy  plants  the  box  of  sand  is  placed 
where  it  will  freeze  throughout  the  winter.  This 
operation  is  known  as   stratification. 

3.    Propagation   by  Buds 
3a.    Why  and  Jioiv  hud  propagation  is  used 

227.  Wlien  varieties  do  not  "come  true"  or  do 
not  reproduce  themselves  from  seeds,  it  is  neces- 


THK     I'KOl'ACATION     OF     PLANTS  137 

sary  to  }»r()pa<^al»'  llu'iii  l>y  iiifuns  nt"  huds.  In 
somo  cases,  also,  seeds  air  imt  produced  freely, 
and  tlirn  n^conrso  is  liad  t<>  i)nds.  In  many 
instances,  too,  as  in  graft in«,^  (juii'kt'r  results  are 
obtained  by  bud  {>ropagation  than  by  st-i'd  piop- 
agation.  ()n«»  nutans  of  dwarling  })lants  is  to 
graft  them  on  kinds  of  small«M-  stature. 

228.  Of  bud  proj>agati()n,  there  are  two  gen- 
oral  typt'S, —  that  in  whicli  tin-  Imd  I't-niains 
attached  to  th«>  jjarcnt  jilaiit  until  it  has  taken 
root,  and  that  in  which  the  bud  is  at  once  se}»a- 
rated  from  the  parent  plant.  Examples  of  the 
former  are  layers ;   of   the  lattei-,  cuttings. 

'.ib.    rndftdched    huds 

221>.  A  layer  is  a  shoot  or  a  root  which, 
while  still  attached  to  the  plant,  is  made  to 
take  root  with  th«'  intention  that  it  shall  be 
severed,    and    form    an    inde|>cndent    )»lant. 

*J."I<>.  Thf  layers  arc  bent  t<»  the  ground,  an<l 
at  one  phu-e  or  Joint  are  covered  with  eai'tli  ;  at 
this  joint  roots  are  emitted.  Layering  may  be 
performed  in  either  fall  or  spring,  but  the  t'oi- 
mer  is  usually  preferre<l.  The  layers  are  usually 
allowed  to  lie  one  season  bef(^re  they  are  sev- 
ered. Almost  any  plant  which  has  shoots  that 
can  be  bent  to  the  ground  can  be  pro])agated 
by  layers ;  but  the  l>est  results  are  obtainetl  in 
plants  which    have    rather   soft   wood. 


138  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

3c.  Detached  buds 

231.  Of  propagation  by  detached  buds,  there 
are  two  types, — buds  which  are  inserted  in  the 
soil  or  in  water,  and  those  which  are  inserted  in 
another  plant.  The  former  are  cuttings ;  the 
latter  are  grafts. 

232.  Cuttings  may  be  made  of  soft  or  un- 
ripe wood,  or  of  hard  and  fully  matured  wood. 
Of  the  soft  kinds  are  cuttings  (or  "slips")  of 
geraniums,  fuchsias,  and  the  like.  Of  the  hard 
kinds  are  cuttings  of  grapes  and  currants. 

233.  Soft  cuttings  are  made  of  shoots  which 
are  sufficiently  mature  to  break  or  snap  when 
bent  double.  They  comprise  at  least  one  joint, 
and  sometimes  two  or  three.  The  leaves  are 
removed  from  the  lower  end,  and  if  the  upper 
leaves  are  large  they  may  be  cut  in  two,  or 
sheared,  to  prevent  too  rapid  evaporation.  A 
soil  free  from  vegetaV)le  matter,  as  sand,  is  pref- 
erable. It  is  generally  necessary  to  shade  the 
cuttings  until  they  are  established. 

234.  Hardwood  or  dormant  cuttings  are 
taken  in  fall  or  winter.  They  usually  comprise 
two  or  more  buds.  They  root  better  if  they  are 
callused  (partially  healed  over  on  the  bottom 
end)  before  they  are  planted :  therefore,  it  is 
customary  to  bury  them  in  sand,  or  to  stand 
them  in  sand,,  in  a  cool  cellar  until  spring.     In 


TMi:     PlvOl'AiiATlMN     OF     t'LANTS  1M9 

spriiijtJC  tliey  are  set  into  tli»'  ground  up  to  the 
top  bud. 

2X).  Single-oyo  ciittiiif^s — tliat  is,  one-})ud 
cuttings — an»  sonictinics  oniploycd  when  buds 
aro  scareo,  as  in  in'w  or  raio  plants.  Tlifse  are 
usually  startt'tl  u!idt'i'  irlass.  Tln'v  ai'f  planted 
half  an  in<'li  or  an  inch  dcfji,  in  an  oi»li(|U»'  or 
horizontal  position. 

2.')().  Grafting  is  thf  (^juTation  of  making 
ono  jtlant,  or  a  part  of  it,  grow  upon  another 
plant.  Tiie  part  which  is  transfcrnMl  or  trans- 
plantod  is  tlic  cion ;  tli«^  i>lant  into  which  this 
part    is  trans])laiitt'tl    is    tlio    stock. 

■_'.".7.  A  cion  may  contain  one  bud  or  many. 
It  may  be  inserted  in  a  <deft  or  split  in  tlie 
wood  of  the  stork,  or  it  may  bo  inserted 
between  tlif  baik  ami  wood  of  the  stock.  A 
single  bud  which  is  inserted  between  the  l)ark 
and  wood  is  technically  known  as  a  "  bud,"  an<l 
the  pi-occss  of  inserting  it  is  known  as  budding; 
l>ut  budding  is  only  a  special   kind  of  grafting. 

'2'.^>^.  The  cion  and  stock  unite  b«'cause  the 
cainl>ium  of  the  two  grow  together.  This  cani- 
bium  is  between  the  bark  and  the  wood  ("JOT): 
therefore  it  is  imj>ortant  that  the  inner  face  of 
the  bark  of  the  cion  (or  bud)  l)e  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  woo<l  of  the  stock  ;  or,  if  the 
cion  is  inserted  in  a  <'Ieft,  that  the  line  between 
the   bark,   in    the   two,   come  together. 


140  THE     PRINX'IPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

239.  When  the  cion  is  inserted,  the  wounded 
surfaces  must  be  tightly  closed,  to  prevent  the 
parts  from  drying  out.  Whenever  the  stock  is 
cut  off  to  receive  the  cion,  thereby  wounding  the 
wood,  wax  is  used  to  cover  the  wound  ;  when 
only  the  bark  is  raised  to  admit  the  cion  or  bud, 
a  bandage   is   used. 

240.  Grafting  with  hardwood  cions  of  two 
or  more  buds  —  which  is  usually  spoken  of  as 
grafting  proper  —  is  performed  in  sjDring,  and 
the  cions  are  cut  in  the  winter  and  are  kept 
fresh  and  dormant  (as  in  a  cellar)  until  wanted. 
The  cion  is  made  from  the  wood  of  the  pre- 
vious season's  growth,  of  the  variety  which  it  is 
desired  to  propagate. 

241.  Budding — or  inserting  a  single  bud  un- 
derneath the  bark — may  be  performed  whenever 
the  bark  of  the  stock  will  peel  or  "slip,"  and 
when  mature  buds  can  be  secured.  If  performed 
in  spring,  the  buds  are  cut  in  winter,  as  for 
grafting  proper.  If  performed  in  late  summer 
or  early  fall — and  this  is  the  custom — the  buds 
are  cut  at  the  time,  from  the  season's  growth. 

SUGGESTIONS   ON  CHAPTER   IX 

215a.  It  is  impracticable,  in  this  connection,  to  explain  fully 
why  it  is  that  some  plants  "come  true"  from  seed,  and  others 
(as  apples,  strawberries,  roses)  do  not  ;  but  the  enquirer  will 
find    the    matter    expounded    in    Bailey's  "Plant-Breeding,"   pp. 


THF     PKOI'AWATION     OF     FM.ANTS 


14 


88-91.  Tho  n-iison  is  tliiit  iu  pliintH  which  ure  hahitually  propa- 
pntcd  by  seeds,  as  the  gardeu  vopetables,  we  are  conMtaiitly 
discarding  the  fomis  which  do  not  oonie  true,  and  are  thereby 
fixing  the  tendency  to  come  true,—  since  only  the  individuals 
which  do  come  true  are  allowed  to  per- 
petuate themselves.  In  plants  which  are 
not  habitually  propagated  by  seeds,  this 
selection  does  not  take  place,  and  the 
tendencv  to  come  true  is  not  fixed. 

217»i.  The  longest -lived  seeds  are  those 
borne  on  plants  which  reach  their  normal, 
healthy  development.  Those  produced  in 
very  dry  years  are  apt  to  have  low  vitality. 
Seeds  should  be  stored  in  a  dry  and  fairly 
cool  room.  Tables  of  the  longevity  of  ganieu  seeils  may  be 
found  on  pp.  104-107  of  the  4tli  edition  of  "  Horticulturist" s 
Rule- Book." 


Kie.  •16.    Seed-iKit,  covered 
with  glass. 


/ 


<>^ 


/ 


/ 


K 


>"■/> 


^- 


■^^ 


>  "  ^  *>:  ^ 


7/^f 


•jt 


t'l(.  it      Four  Ujrwii  Kboot* 

219a.    "Nursery -Book,"    pp.     1-7,    discusses     th«'     meani    of 
regulating  moijiturf,  with   illustrations. 

2'Jt^.    As  an   experiment,    plant  euro   a  foot    deep   in   warm. 


142 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


firm  soil.  Run  a  little  stick  or  splinter  down  to  some  of  the 
seeds,  allowing  it  to  remain.  The  air  enters  alongside  the  stick. 
Observe  if  there  is  any  difference  in  germination.  If  not,  try 
it  when  the  soil  is  very  wet. 

224a.    Very  small    seeds    are   often   sown  very  shallow  in    a 
pot,  and  a  pane  of  glass  is  laid  over  the  pot  to  check  evapora- 


tion (Fig.  46).  As  soon 
pear,  the  glass  is  re- 
tailed directions  for  the 
see  the  "  Nursery-Book," 
230a.  An  illustra- 
given  in  Fig.  47.  Four 
shoots  are  layered.  One 
shoot,  A,  is  layered  in 


as  the  plantlets  ap- 
moved.      For    de- 
sowing     of     seeds, 
pp.  15-25. 
tion  of  layering  is 


Fig.  48.    Coleus  cutting 


Fig.  49.     Cutting  held  by 
tooth-pick  (x^). 


Fig.  50.    One  style  oi 

chrysanthemum 

cutting  (xj^). 


two  places,  and  two  plants  will  result.  When  the  layers  have 
taken  root,  the  part  is  severed  and  treated  as  an  independent 
plant.  Honeysuckles,  lilacs,  snowballs,  and  many  common 
bushes  can  be  layered  with  ease.  See  Chapter  iii.,  in  "Nursery- 
Book,"  for  full  discussion. 

2.33a.  These  green  cuttings  may  be  planted  in  shallow  boxes 
of  sand,  in  coldframes  or  hotbeds,  or  in  the  bench  of  a  glass- 
house.    Figs.  48-50   illustrate  the  process. 

234rt.  A  grape  cutting  is  shown  in  Fig.  51.  This  is  the 
common  fashion  for  propagating  the  grape  ;  but  new  varieties 
are  often  grown  from  single  eyes,  as  shown  in  Fig.  52.     Consult 


■<•  54.    bod  ontrrlDf  matrtx  (xX). 


•tub  uS)- 


Ki(.  S;.  Tbo  bud  In 
fig  Uwatthoved 
down  until  por 
«t«hJ  by  the  b»rk. 
and  now  tied  with 
bML 


144  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

Chapter  iv.  of  '' Nursery -Book,"  for  full  directions  for  making 
and  growing  cuttings. 

238a.  Two  cions  inserted  in  a  cleft  in  the  stock  are  shown  in 
Fig.  53.  The  cambium  layers  come  together  in  the  cion  and 
the  stock.  A  "bud"  cion  is  shown  in  Fig.  54,  and  the  operation 
of  shoving  this  down  between  the  bark  and  wood  of  the  stock 
is  seen  in  Fig.  55. 

239a.  The  waxing  of  a  stock  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  56.  The 
tying  of  a  bud  (by  soft  cord  or  bast)  is  shown  in  Fig.  57. 

240a.  The  common  style  of  grafting  is  suggested  in  Figs.  53 
and  56.  This  is  known  as  cleft-grafting,  from  the  splitting  of 
the  stock.  It  is  the  style  nearly  always  employed  in  orchard 
trees  of    apples  and    pears. 

241a.  Shield -budding  is  the  common  style.  It  is  illustrated 
in  Figs.  54,  55,  57.  The  buds  are  cut  at  the  time  of  the  bud- 
ding, the  leaves  being  at  once  taken  off  to  prevent  evaporation  ; 
but  a  bit  of  the  leaf-stalk  is  usually  left  to  serve  as  a  handle, 
as  seen  in  the  picture.  Peaches,  cherries,  plums,  oranges,  are 
usually  budded. 

2416.  In  all  kinds  of  grafting  and  budding,  the  operator 
must  be  careful  to  select  cions,  or  buds,  from  only  those  varie- 
ties which  he  desires  to  perpetuate.  The  stocks  used  by  nur- 
serymen are  seedlings  ;  but  even  if  the  plant  is  grafted,  it  can 
be  grafted  again,  the  same  as  if  it  were  a  seedling.  In  most 
cases,  a  variety  is  grafted  on  another  plant  of  the  same  general 
kind,  as  a  peach  on  a  peach,  an  apple  on  an  apple,  a  plum  on 
a  plum  ;  but  there  are  cases  in  which  one  kind  or  species  is 
grafted  on  a  different  species:  (a)  to  secure  a  dwarf  plant,  by 
grafting  on  a  slow-growing  root  (as  pear  on  quince),  or  (&)  be- 
cause seeds  of  the  given  species  are  rare,  and  a  closely  related 
stock  is  therefore  substituted.  For  extended  accoimts  of  bud- 
ding and   grafting,  refer  to  "Nursery-Book,"  Chapter  v. 


Chapter   X 

PKEPAKATloN     oK    LAND     V()\i    TllK     SVA'A) 


I   r.  noiih.KTa 


1.    J-'ddors    Which    fhtrrrn'mr    tin-    I'rcpardtio-n 
of  till'    St'cd-hcd 

24l2.  F^aulty  pn'])arati(Ui  of  tlif  land  is  tho 
caiis(»  (»f  more  failures  tliaii  tlif  substMiuciit 
tn^atiin'iit  of  tlio  crop.  In  lifld  coiKlitions,  this 
preparation  can  not  be  so  tliorouj^h,  or  so  ideal, 
as  in  «rard«'n  aroas  or  in  .c:lass-hons(»s.  Tlio 
p'noral  condition  of  tlic  farm  work  dictates  to 
a  ^n'cat  extent  tlic  juirticular  time  wln-n  tlie 
see<l  shall  he  s<nvn  and  the  amonnt  of  pn'para- 
t<>ry  work  wliich  sliall  lie  put  on  the  land: 
theroforo,  it  is  very  imjiortant  that  the  farmer 
fully  understand  what  is  requiriMl,  in  <»rder  that 
he   may  make   no   mistakes. 

24.'?.  The  preparation  of  the  land  for  seeding 
should  l»e  governed  hy  two  taetors  :  hy  the 
needs  of  the  particular  plant  which  is  to  he 
grown,  and  hy  the  chara<'t«'r  of  the  land.  To 
]>repare  a  sood-hed  for  any  crop,  the  hahits, 
likes     and     dislikes    of     the     plants     should     h» 


146  THE     PRINCIPLiES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

studied.  That  is,  it  is  not  enough  that  the 
land  be  well  prepared:  it  should  have  the  kind 
of  preparation  which  is  demanded  by  the  crop. 

2.    The  Demands  of  the  Plant 

244.  The  preparation  of  the  seed-bed  differs 
with  the  way  in  which  the  plant  is  propagated. 
Some  plants  are  propagated  by  a  piece  or 
part  of  an  underground  stem  or  tuber,  as  the 
potato ;  others  by  a  branch  of  the  aerial 
part,  as  the  willow  or  sugar-cane.  In  all  of 
these  cases,  the  buds  or  eyes  are  surrounded 
with  food  for  immediate  use.  This  stored  food 
gives  them  power  to  send  out  strong  shoots  and 
to  grow  for  some  time  without  having  to  secure 
nourishment  from  the  soil.  But  many  plants  are 
propagated  by  tiny  seeds.  These  start  in 
life  with  little  stored  food,  and,  therefore,  must 
quickly  secure  nourishment  from  the  soil ;  and 
the  land  must,  therefore,  be  very  well  prepared. 
These  seeds  should  be  planted  near  the  surface, 
for  there  will  not  be  strength  enough  in  the 
infant  plant  to  push  its  way  through,  if  planted 
as  deep   as  the  potato. 

245.  Plants  may  change  or  modify  their 
characteristics  to  adapt  themselves  to  changed 
conditions.  The  common  red  clover  is  a  tap- 
rooted   plant,  but  if   it  grows   on    soil   which    is 


PREPARATION  OK  LAND  FOR  THK  SEED     147 

underlaid  with  urt  day,  it  tfiuls  to  become 
fibrous- rooted.  Eveu  lon^- lived  perennials,  as 
trees,  do  best  when  the  surface  soil  is  well  pre- 
pared to  a  depth  of  ten  to  twelve  inches,  sin(;e 
many  feeding  roots  of  trees,  especially  of  younj; 
ones,   find    nourishment    in   this   prejiared   soil. 

l!4().  Plants  differ  ^-eatly,  however,  m  ability 
to  adapt  themselves  to  unfavorable  conditions. 
Many  common  plants  send  their  tap-roots  into 
the  subsoil  for  two  to  three  feet,  even  if  it  be 
hard,  wiiile  su«rar  beets  become  fibrous- rooted, 
and  may  be  pushed  ii]i  and  i»artly  out  of  the 
ground  if  their  tap-roots  attempt  to  enter  the 
undisturbed  hard  subsoil.  Land  devoted  to 
clover  need  not  necessarily  be  subsoiled  if  it 
be  fairly  free  frf)m  stagnant  water,  while  that, 
planted  to  sugar  beets  should  be  subsoiled, 
f'»r  the  reason  that  a  long,  fusiform  root  is 
desired,  all  or  nearly  all  of  which  should  be 
b.'low  the  surface ;  for  that  part  of  the  beet 
which  grows  above  the  ground  is  not  nearly  so 
valuable  for  making  Bugaj*  as  that  pm*t  which 
grows  under  ground. 

247.  Nearly  all  of  the  c<jmmoD  and  quick- 
growing  plants  secure  tlie  larger  part  of  their 
nourishment  and  moisture  from  the  first,  or  sur- 
face foot  of  soil.  This  being  so,  it  is  seen  how 
11  .T'^sary  it  is  to  ] ire] tare  the  soil  in  the  best 
p-'.^>;ble   manner.     If   the   up]»er  soil    is   not  well 


148  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

prepared,  the  roots  must  search  wide  aud   deep 
for  food. 

248.  Most  of  the  smaller  plants  require  but 
about  six  months  in  which  to  grow  and  to  fruit. 
If,  in  order  to  secure  nourishment  and  moisture, 
the  roots  are  obliged  to  descend  into  the  cold, 
hard  subsoil,  where  the  plant- food  is  likely  to  be 
least  available,  neither  growth  nor  fruitage  can 
be  satisfactory.  Those  plants  which  do  not  ma- 
ture until  they  are  five  to  twenty  years  of  age,  as 
fruit  trees,  can  secure  much  nourishment  from 
the  subsoil,  although  they  secure  little  in  any 
one  growing  season.  Then,  too,  trees  must  se- 
cure a  firm  hold  on  the  land,  or  they  will  be 
prostrated  by  winds.  By  being  obliged  to  send 
many  of  their  roots  into  the  cold,  firm  subsoil 
through  many  generations,  trees  have  probably 
acquired  the  power  of  securing  more  of  the  tough 
or  unavailable  food  of  the  subsoil  than  plants 
which  live  but  one  season. 

249.  Different  plants  require  not  only  to  be 
planted  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  but  at 
different  depths.  They  demand  different  meth- 
ods of  preparation  of  the  sm-face  soil.  Some 
do  best  when  placed  in  loose,  warm  soil,  as, 
for  instance,  maize  and  sweet  potatoes ;  while 
others  do  best  when  grown  on  fairly  cold  and 
somewhat  compacted  surface  soil,  as  winter 
wheat. 


PREPARATION      or      I.ANh      I*  Hi      rHK     SEKI>  1  49 

'A.     I  lie    I'n/xiriiK/    oj    llu:    Sfcd-hiil 

2r)(».  X.'arly  all  plants  thrive  best  wlu'ii  I'lir- 
nislu'd  with  a  full  and  continuttiis  siH)|>ly  of 
moisture,  I'^inc,  loose  earth,  whieh  contains  a 
nu^derat*'  a(hnixtui-e  of  humus,  is  capahle  of 
holdinu:  mueii  moisture  (7.*{,  74);  l)ut  tli«^  soil 
may  he  so  h)ose  and  li.i^ht  as  to  admit  too 
ra|>id  nio\emeiit  of  air,  in  whieh  ease  the  mois- 
ture will  he  eari'ied  away.  If  the  particles  of 
eartii  are  separated  too  widely,  capillarity  is 
weakened.  In  such  cases  the  subsurface  soil 
sliould  he  slijj:htly  compacted,  while  one  to  tliree 
inches  of  the  surface  is  left  loose  to  form  an 
earth-muh'h,  which  tends  to  prev<Mit  loss  of 
moisture  hy  evajH)ration.  The  particles  of  the 
loose  surface  earth-nnilch  should  he  so  widely 
separated  that  the  moisture  can  climb  only  to 
th«-  bottom  of  it,  tor  if  it  comes  to  the  surface 
the  air  will  carry  it  away  (83),  The  i'aith-ninli-li 
shades  the  irround  in  which  the  jtlant-^  are  ;^m-ow- 
injj,  prevents  the  soil  from  crackiiiir.  and  saves 
moisture. 

•J.')l.  The  see<l-be<l  shouhi  contain  n<i  free 
wat'-r  ;  but  it  is  impossible  to  secure  this  con- 
ditiou  at  all  times.  No  serious  harm  may  <'ome 
whe!i  the  soil  is  over-saturated  at  plantintc  time, 
if  the  free  water  is  <|uickiy  removed.  If  the 
soil    contains   more    water    than    it    can    hold    bv 


150  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

capillarity,  the  air   is    driven   out,    and    the    soil 
swells   and  tends  to  become  puddled  (81). 

252.  Many  seeds  will  not  germinate  if  planted 
out  of  season,  or  when  the  soil  is  cool,  no  matter 
how  well  the  seed-bed  is  prepared.  Then,  if  it 
is  desired  to  plant  early,  make  the  land  fine  and 
loose,  for  in  so  doing  the  temperature  of  the 
soil  is  raised.  The  soil  of  a  fine,  porous  seed- 
bed, resting  on  a  well -drained  subsurface  and 
subsoil,  is  much  warmer  than  one  resting  on  a 
compact,  undrained  foundation.  However,  it  is 
not  wise  to  plant  seeds  out  of  season  or  when 
the  weather  is  unsuitable. 

253.  If  small  seeds  are  covered  with  but  little 
earth,  they  may  fail  to  germinate  for  lack  of 
moisture.  If  covered  with  enough  fine  earth  to 
insure  a  constant  supply  of  moisture,  the  young 
plants  have  a  hard  struggle  to  reach  the  surface. 
Only  a  few  of  the  small  seeds,  as  clover  and 
many  of  those  planted  in  the  kitchen -garden  or 
flower-garden,  ever  produce  plants.  Sometimes 
the  seeds  are  imperfect,  but  more  often  the  fail- 
ure to  secure  vigorous  germination  is  due  to  a 
poor  seed-bed  or  to  careless  planting.  To  ob- 
tain better  results,  not  only  prepare  a  fine  seed- 
bed and  sow  at  the  proper  time,  but  compact 
the  soil  immediately  over  the  row  of  seeds. 
This  will  enable  capillary  attraction  to  bring 
moisture  to  the   surface,  or  near  it   (103).     The 


PREPARATION     OF     LAND     FOR     THF     SEED  If*] 

earth -mulch  should  roiiiaiii  uupacked  between 
rhe  rows,  to  conserve  moisture. 

254.  In  some  cases  it  is  impossible  to  secure 
a  proper  seed-bed  for  small  seeds.  For  ex- 
ample, no  suitable  seed-bed  can  in*  procured, 
as  a  rule,  i'(ir  clover  see<ls  when  sowed  in  a 
growinj^  tilled  crop.  In  order  to  secure  germina- 
tion, these  seeds  are  sown  on  the  surface  in  early 
sprin«j:,  while  the  surface  soil  is  still  porous 
from  winter  fre«'zing.  The  sjirin^  rains  wash 
the  seeds  into  the  little  cracks  in  the  soil  and 
partly  cover  them.  Tlif  weather  being  cool  and 
cloudy  and  the  soil  moist  in  early  spring,  the 
oily  seeds  of  the  clover  are  kept  damp  enough  to 
insure  germination.  If  such  small  seeds  are  sown 
in  summer  or  early  fall,  the  land  is  rolled  for 
the  purpose  of    supi>lying  them  with  moisture. 

2')').  A  good  field  stM'd-bed,  then,  t*an  be 
secured  profitably  only  on  land  which  is  either 
naturally  or  artificially  well  <lrained,  which  has 
been  well  broken  and  crumbled  by  the  plow,  and 
tlie  surface  of  whidi  has  been  thoroughly  fined 
by  the  luirrow.  Particular  care  should  be  taken 
not  to  work  heavy  or  <'lay  lands  when  they  are 
wet.  Neither  should  clay  huuls  be  tilled  so  nuich 
that  they  become  very  dusty,  else  they  will  puddl»» 
when  the  rains  come.  The  remarks  respecting 
the  proper  tillage  of  the  land  ^Thaptor  iv.)  will 
apply  here. 


152  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

4.    Application  of  the  Foregoing  Principles 
4ca.   Wheat 

256.  Winter  wheat  does  best  when  one  or  two 
inches  of  the  surface  soil  is  fine  and  loose,  and 
the  subsurface  soil  fine  and  fairly  compact. 

257.  To  secure  the  ideal  conditions,  the 
ground  should  be  plowed  some  time  before  sow- 
ing, and  the  manure  spread  on  the  rough 
surface.  The  ground  is  immediately  harrowed, 
rolled,  and  harrowed  again.  In  one  or  two 
weeks  afterward  it  is  surface -tilled  again,  with 
the  implements  best  suited  to  the  particular 
soil.  All  this  tends  to  divide  and  cover  the 
manure,  compact  the  subsurface  soil,  form  a 
fine  seed-bed,  conserve  moisture,  and  set  free 
plant -food. 

258.  This  treatment  of  the  land  causes  the 
roots  to  be  many  and  fibrous,  and  to  remain 
near  the  surface,  where  the  plant -food  is 
most  abundant  and  available.  If  the  manure 
is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  remains  loose,  the 
roots  are  less  fibrous  and  descend  to  the 
bottom  of  the  furrow.  In  the  spring,  it  often 
freezes  at  night  and  thaws  during  the  day. 
This  tends  to  lift  the  plants  and  to  break 
their  roots.  But  if  the  roots  are  nearly  hori- 
zontal   and   near  the   surface,  they  tend   to   rise 


PRFPARATION'     OF     LAND     FOR     TMK     SKKD  153 

and   fall   with  the  freezing  and  thawing,  and  aro 
not   seriously  injured. 

230.  As  the  soil  becomes  hot  at  the  surface 
in  June  and  .Tuly,  the  shallow  roots  d»'sc«'nd 
to  the  subsurface  soil,  wln'i»>  it  is  cool  and 
ulu'H'  the  plant-food  was  not  drawn  ui>on  <nn- 
in.i^  the  fall  ;  while  the  d»>»>i>  fall-root»'d  plants 
will  be  unable  to  find  new  fectlini,'  jjrround  when 
tht\v  n«»(Ml  it  most,  just  before  fruitinir,  unless 
th»'  roots  start  towaid  tho  surface,  which  they 
will  not  do,  for  in  midsummer  the  surface  soil  is 
liard  and  dryish   and   to«>  warm   for  wheat    roots. 

4'>.     }[tiize,  or    Indian    corn 

*Jb().  The  seed-bed  for  maize,  which  is  a  sun- 
plant  and  does  l)est  when  ]»lanted  in  a  warm 
soil,  nuiy  be  prepared  in  a  ditTerent  way  from 
that  (lesifjne<l  for  wintci-  wh«'at.  Since  maize  is 
plant4Ml  in  the  sprini^,  when  the  soil  is  often  too 
cool  for  tliis  semi-troj>ical  plant,  the  subsurface 
soil  should  not  be  as  comj>act  as  for  wheat.  If 
left  rather  open,  the  warm  sj»rini,'  rains  jiass 
quickly  to  the  subsoil  and  warm  the  soil  (77). 
The  more  open  seed-bed  will  allow  a  f!""'-  .i'-.n. 
lation  of  warm  air  through  the  soil. 

2(\\.  The  best  nuK'hines  for  j>lanting  maize 
are  those  which  deposit  the  see*!  one  to  two 
inches  below  the    surface  in    the  fine,  moist  soil. 


154  THE     PRIXCIPLE5     OF     AGKICULTUEE 

and  compact  the  surface  soil  over  the  seed  by 
means  of  concave  'wheels  about  eight  inches 
wide,  while  the  spaces  between  the  rows  are  not 
compacted.  The  maize  may  be  cultivated  and 
harrowed  before  the  plants  appear,  since  the 
rows  may  be  easily  followed  by  the  marks  left  by 
the  concave  roller  wheels.  The  frequent  inter- 
tillage  which  will  be  required  to  destroy  weeds, 
to  preserve  the  earth-mulch,  and  to  set  free 
plant -food,  will  compact  the  subsurface  soil 
quite  as  much  as  is  desirable. 

4c.   Potatoes 

262.  The  potato  should  be  planted  deep  and 
left  with  uncompacted  surface  soil.  The  seed 
potato  contains  about  75  per  cent  of  moisture, 
and  has  a  large  quantity  of  stored  food  for 
nourishing  the  buds  and  sending  up  strong 
shoots.  It  thrives  best  in  a  cool,  moist  soil ; 
and  this  condition  is  secured  if  it  is  planted 
about  four  inches  deep. 

263.  It  should  also  be  remembered  that  pota- 
toes are  enlarged  underground  branches,  and 
that  the  new  tubers  preferably  grow  above  the 
seed-tuber.  If  the  seed-tuber  be  planted  shal- 
low, the  branch  or  stem  above  the  seed  is  so 
short  that  there  is  little  room  for  underground 
stems. 

264.  Usually  potatoes  should  not  be  hilled  at 


PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  THE  SEED     156 

the  liini  cultivation,  for  at  that  timo  the  potatoes 
will  have  begun  to  form  near  the  surface  or  in 
the  subsurface  soil,  according  to  soil  conditions, 
moistun>,  climate  and  variety.  Tlion,  to  throw  h 
mass  of  dirt  on  top  of  these  underground  strms, 
after  they  have  chosen  the  best  position  for 
highest  development,  is  to  force  them  to  adapt 
themselves  to  new  <'onditions. 

SUGGESTIOSS    OX    rriAI'TKIi    A 

242a.  In  this  chapter,  the  word  seed  is  used  in  it8  general 
sgricultural  sense,  to  designate  seeds  or  other  parts  (as  tubers) 
which  are  planted  for  field  crops. 

243</.  A  8<'ed-bed  is  the  8r»il  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  or 
sown.  It  may  bo  the  size  of  a  window  box,  a  hotbed  frame,  h 
garden  bed,  or  ii  field  of  wheat. 

244<i.  The  sprouts  which  appear  on  potatoes  in  cellars  are 
supplied  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  tubvr.  If  a  winter 
branch  of  a  tree  is  stood  in  water  in  a  warm  room,  leaves  and 
~  •metimes  flowers  will  appear  in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  ;  and 
lio  growth  is  made  from  the  nutriment  stored  in  the  twig.  All 
■eds  have  stored  nutriment,  but  the  small  ones  have  very  little, 
tind  it  may  be  exhausted  before  the  plantlets  can  get  a  foothold  in 
tho  soil.  The  better  and  finer  the  seed-bed,  the  sooner  the  plant- 
let  can  establish  itself. 

2.')0«i.    Tho  subsurface  soil  is  that  lying  just  below  the  surface, 
iH'tween  the  surface  and  the  subsoil.      It  is  the  lower  part  of  the 
-  >il  which    has    been  loosened    by  the    plow,— that    part  which  is 
)>elow  the  n<acb  of  the  surface  tilling. 

2506.    The  subsurface  soil  may  bu  compacted  by  rolling  (102), 

after  which  tho  surface  is  loosened  by  harrowing.     When  land  is 

much   surface   tillage,    as   for   wheat,    the   tnimping  of   the 

-    cou)pactM    tho    under    soil,      l/oose,    sandy    lands    may    b«' 

piowed  shallow  in  order  to  keep  tho  subsurface  compact  (94). 


Fig  58.     A  well  ilraiueU  out  moist 
soil. 


■^ 


Fig    )U      Auli     iiui  uiicougelii  1 
soil. 


Fig.  60.    A  wheat  plant  properly  growu, 
in  the  tall. 


Fig,  01.     The  result  of  too  loose  soil, 
and   manure   plowed   under. 


^.J^ 


PRF.PARATION  <»F  THK  LAND  FOR  SKKD     1")? 

251(1.  The  Fip.  58  shows  n  ilrninod  soil  supplied  with  mois- 
ture held  by  capillarity  in  the  siimller  interstices,  while  the 
hirj;er  channels  have  been  relieved  of  free  water  by  percolation. 
Kijj.  51)  represents  n  supersaturated  .soil  from  whifh  nir  and  he»t 
nro  largely  excluded.  If 
-••eds  remain  for  a  few  days 
in   this  undrained   soil   tluy 

fail   to  germinate,  and   may  „^..,,-vfr^' '' 

rot.  Should  stagnant  water  -''•VV:  /  . 
remain  in  the  soil  for  some 
time  after  the  plants  have 
appeared  above  gniund.  they 
will  turn  yellow,  and  may 
{lerish  (IJM).  All  this  empha- 
sizes the  necessity  of  prepar- 
ing a  seed-bed  adapted  to  the 
wants  of  the  plant  to  be 
grown,    and    of    maintaining 

such    soil    conditions  ns   are  ^,       ■/ /  './ 

best   suited    to    the  wants  of  \v   ' 

the    plant    during    its  entir*- 
p«rio«l  of  growth. 

25.Trt.    "Care   should    br        >*^ 
•  xercjscd  not    to    sow   very        — '" 

imall   and  slow-germinating  ' y^-y  ""    V     * 

seeds,     as     celerj',      carrot,  .^     {\  ,         • 

•>nion,    in     poorly    prepared  ^  \  \_    S 

soil  or  in  land  which  nakes.       y\i  83.    The  r«iult  of  nhmllow  pUntlDC 
With  such  soeds    it    is   w«-ll 

to  sow  seeds  of  radish  or  tamip,  for  these  germinate  quickly 
and  break  the  cnist.  and  also  mark  the  row,  so  that  tillage  may 
be  begun  before  the  regular-crop  seeds  are  up." — Bailey,  Gar- 
den- Makinff,  p,  37. 

'i^toa.  The  expense  of  preparing  the  land  can  often  be  ma- 
terially diminished  if  the  land  is  p'.ow.mI  nome  little  time  before  it 
IS  pi. lilted,  in  such  a  wny  that  the  elements  can  act  ufnin  thf  soil 
through   the   process   of    weathering,      la  such  cawes.  the  furrow- 


<l- 


158  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

slice  is  not  laid  flat,  but  left  at  an  angle  of  about  forty-fiv<» 
degrees,  tiiat  the  soil  may  become  warmed  for  the  purpose  ot 
promoting  chemical  action  and  the  liberation  of  plant-food.  It 
may  also  serve  to  hasten  the  drying  of  the  land  (95). 

2556.  Summer-fallowing  is  often  an  advisable  means  of  pre- 
paring the  seed-bed.  It  consists  of  two  or  more  summer  plow- 
ings  and  several  harrowings,  the  land  remaining  idle.  Fallowed 
lands  are  usually  sown  to  wheat  in  the  fall.  An  ideal  seed-bed 
can  be  secured  by  this  means.  Fallowing  is  to  be  advised  when 
lands  are  very  stony,  stumpy,  hard,  or  when  they  have  become 
foul  with  bad  weeds,  or  have  been  injured  by  plowing  or  ditching 
when  too  wet.  It  is  a  means  of  putting  the  land  right.  The 
better  the  condition  of  the  land, — that  is,  the  better  the  farming, 
— the  less  the  necessity  of  summer-fallowing.  The  practice  is 
becoming  less  common,  largely  because  modern  implements  and 
methods  enable  us  to  handle  the  land  better. 

258a.  The  pictures  will  make  this  reasoning  plain.  Fig.  60 
represents  a  wheat  plant  in  the  fall,  on  properly  handled  land. 
The  roots  are  near  the  surface.  Fig.  61  shows  how  the  roots 
strike  deep  when  manure  is  plowed  under  and  the  soil  is  left 
loose  ;  and  this  plant  stands  less  chances  of  success  than  the 
other. 

263a.  The  accompanying  figures,  which  are  made  directly 
from  nature,  illustrate  the  point  that  deep  planting  in  well-pre- 
pared land  tends  to  result  in  a  deep  and  spreading  hill  of  potatoes 
(Fig.  62  ^  whereas  shallow  planting  in  poorly  prepared  land  results 
in  a  shallow  and  crowded  hill  (Fig.  63).  The  better  potatoes  may 
be  expected  in  the  former  case. 


Ch.apter  XI 

SUBSEQUENT   CARE   OF   THE    PLANT 

1.  By  Means  of  Tillage 
la.    In  general 

2(35.  Tillauro  is  tho  first  consideration  in  the 
care  of  tlio  ]»laiit.  Tliis  is  eiuphatically  triu»  in 
tho  lit'lil;  l)ut  ill  tlu'  glass-house  tilhige  is  reduced 
to  a  iniiiiiiium,  in  part  because  tlie  ]>reparation  of 
the  soil  is  so  thorough. 

2i)<>.  The  objects  of  tillage,  in  tlir  can'  of  tiie 
plant  subsequent  to  seeding  or  planting,  are 
three:  {a)  to  supply  plant-food,  by  rendering 
the  soil  constitu«'nts  availal)l«>  ;  (/>)  to  supjdy 
moisture  ;  (c)  to  destroy  weeds.  The  first  two 
captions  have  boon  discusstMl  in  ("haptrrs  ii., 
iii.,   iv. 

lli;7.  {(■)  \V<M'(ls  arc  only  incidt'iital  dillicul- 
tios.  They  are  the  results  of  faulty  management 
of  the  land.  If  the  first  attention  is  giv»'n  to  tin- 
crops  and  the  land,  the  iiuestion  of  weeds  will 
largely  take  care  of  itself.  It  is  less  important 
to  know  the  kinds  of  weeds  than  it  is  to  know 
how  to  till  and  to  crop  the  laud. 


160  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

268.  There  are  four  general  means  of  keeping 
weeds  in  check  :  (a)  by  good  tillage  (101,  101a) ; 
(b)  by  rotation  of  crops,  by  means  of  which  any 
one  kind  of  weed  is  prevented  from  becoming 
thoroughly  established  ;  (c)  by  complete  occupa- 
tion of  the  land  with  crops, — for  weeds  find  op- 
portunity when  the  ground  is  not  fully  occupied, 
as  in  old  and  thin  meadows  ;  (d)  by  killing  the 
weeds  directly. 

269.  Surface  tillage  should  be  given  as  often 
as  the  ground  becomes  hard,  or  whenever  the 
earth-mulch  needs  repairing  (100).  Under  gen- 
eral conditions,  tilled  crops,  as  maize  and  pota- 
toes, should  be  cultivated  every  ten  days  or  two 
weeks,  particularly  early  in  the  season.  As  soon 
as  low  crops  cover  the  ground,  and  thereby  afford 
a  mulch,  cultivation  may  cease. 

270.  Sowed  crops  can  often  be  tilled  once  or 
twice  to  advantage  very  early  in  the  season,  by 
running  a  fine-toothed  harrow  over  them.  Thus, 
wheat  and  maize  are  now  often  harrowed  in  early 
spring.  The  harrowing  destroys  but  few  plants, 
while  it  loosens  the  soil,  and  conserves  moisture 
before  much  has  been  lost  by  hot  weather.  Har- 
rowing meadows  and  pastures  causes  the  plants 
to  tiller  or  to  stool  out,  and  thereby  to  cover 
the  gi'ound  more  completely  ;  it  also  breaks  the 
old,  hard  roots  and  causes  new  feeders  to  appear, 
thereby  re -invigorating  the  plants. 


SUBSEQUKNT     TARK     OF     THE     IM,ANT  K)! 

\b.    In  fruit  i>liiiifiitii>iis 

■J71.  Tillap'  u'lVfs  tin-  saiii*'  i-fsiilt^  in  t'niit 
plantations  as  with  annual  I'l'ojts,  ainl  it  also  lias 
partifiilar  advaiitap's  in  siwli  ('as«'s  :  it  causes 
the  roots  of  the  trees  of  Imslies  to  strike  deej) 
ijito  tlie  soil  and  therehy  to  find  moisture  in  dry 
times,  and  it  has  a  doeided  effect  in  ket'jtiuLr  down 
the  I'avap'S  of  insects  an<l  the  incursions  of  dis- 
eases by  destroyinu:  l)reedinu:-|ilact'«<  an<]  1'Uiyin^ 
diseased  foliage  and  fruit. 

'J7*J.  Since  fruit  trees  and  huslies  send  their 
roots  so  deep  into  the  soil,  they  are  l)etter  ahle 
to  withstand  iieu:lect  of  tillairc  than  annual  ci'ojis 
are.  There  has  thus  ai'lsfu  a  Lrcuci-al  helicf  that 
orchards  do  l>cst  in  sod;  hut  in  most  cases  of 
successful  sod  orchards  the  trees  thrive  in  sjtite 
of  the  s<^l,   not  because  of  it. 

'J7.I.  It  is  particularly  imj»ortant  to  till  fruit 
plantations  early  in  their  life.  Apples  sh<tuld 
L'cnerally  he  tilled  for  at  least  the  first  ten  years. 
The  plants  tlici-.-hy  i;.-!  a  good  start  and  conic 
into  hearing  eaily  ;  and  the  hahit  acquired  in  the 
first  years  is  apt  to  continue.  The  trt-atment 
givi'U  in  tlie  early  perio<l  usually  determines  the 
success  of  the  fruit   plantation. 

'274.  The  fruit  plantation  may  nee«i  tillage 
throughout  all  the  years  of  its  existence,  and,  a.s 
a  matter  of  fact,  it  usually  does  need  it.     But  if 


162  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  trees  or  bushes  tend  to  grow  too  fast,  so  that 
they  do  not  bear,  or  become  top-heavy,  or  do  not 
stand  the  winter,  they  may  be  checked  by  put- 
ting the  plantation  in  sod  ;  but  even  then,  the 
sod  is  only  a  temporary  expedient.  If  the  man- 
agement of  the  plantation  has  been  right,  it  is 
doubtful  if  sod  can  ever  be  an  advantage, — or  at 
least  with  none  of  the  common  fruits,  except 
possibly  apples  and  pears. 

275.  All  fruit  j)lants  start  into  growth  very 
early  in  the  season.  Therefore,  tillage  should  be 
begun  the  moment  the  ground  is  fit  -.  and  it 
should  be  continued  unremittingly  until  the  time 
arrives  for  all  tillage  to  cease. 

276.  The  growth  on  fruit  plants  generally 
ceases  by  midsummer.  Therefore,  tillage  may 
stop  at  midseason  or  early  fall ;  and  at  the  last 
tillage  a  cover-crop  may  be  sown  (109,  114,  116). 
Stopping  the  tillage  early  allows  the  plants  to 
mature  their  gro"s,th,  and  thereby  be  more  likely 
to  escape  winter  injury ;  and  it  lessens  the  dan- 
ger of  overgrowth.  If  the  trees  are  carrying  a 
heavy  crop,  however,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
continue  the  tillage  in  order  to  supply  the  fruit 
with  moisture,  especially  if  the  land  or  the 
season  is  dry. 

277.  The  tillage  of  fruit-plantations  usually 
consists  of  a  spring  plowing,  followed  by  har- 
rowing.    If   the  land  has    been  well    handled   in 


SUBSEQrENT     CARE     OF     TMi:     PLANT  ]f)'A 

the  first  few  years,  deep  and  lifavv  jdnwing  will 
not  he  needed  wlwii  an  (trchard  conu's  fo  ma- 
tiiiity.  Liirht  .tranir-jtlows,  »»r  even  cultivators, 
may  then  he  sullicicnt  foi-  the  lii-st  hrcaking  of 
the  soil   in  sjniiiL'. 

2.     liif    Miit//.s    (il     riKniHij    inifl     I  rniiiniq 
2a.    Pruning    vs.    tntinitnj 

'J7H.  Pruninir  is  tlie  removing  «>1  ccilain  j'art> 
of  jdants  for  the  pnri)ose  of  auf^nicntin^'  the 
welfan*  of  the  phint  or  to  secure  more.  Iar«^er 
or  l>etter  i>roducts  (as  hetter  fruit  or  Unwers). 
Training  is  the  trinnning  or  shaping  of  the  plant 
into  some  particular  or  desired  form.  Success- 
ful pruning  th'pends  ui>on  princi}>les  of  j)lant 
growth  ;  training  depends  iijion  the  personal 
ideal  of  tlie  pruuer. 

■J79.  Nature  pnines.  In  every  plant,  more 
branches  start  than  can  ever  mature  ;  and  many 
buds  are  suppressed  before  they  have  uia(U» 
branches.  Every  tree  top,  if  left  to  itself,  will 
sooner  or  later  contain  many  dejul  braucbcf. 
Tiiere  is  a  struggle  for  existence  amongst  tiie 
branches,  and  the  weakest  die. 

2b.    The   healing  of  uoundu 

2S'0,  Pruning  depends  upon  two  sets  of  fac- 
tors,— upon    the  questions   ciunNTned    in  tlie   heal- 


164  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

ing  of  wounds  and  the  injury  to  the  plant,  and 
upon  the  general  results  which  it  is  desired  to 
attain.  Knowing  how  wounds  affect  the  plant, 
the  pruner  should  then  have  a  definite  purpose 
in  view  when  he  cuts  a  limb. 

281.  The  proper  healing  of  wounds  depends 
primarily  upon  (a)  the  kind  of  plant  (observe 
that  peach  trees  heal  less  readily  than  apples), 
(b)  the  vigor  of  the  plant,  (c)  the  position  of  the 
wound  on  the  plant  (wounds  on  strong  main 
limbs  heal  better  than  those  on  weak  or  side 
limbs),  (d)  the  length  of  the  stump — the  shorter 
the  stump  the  quicker  the  healing,  —  (e)  the 
character  of  the  wound  as  to  smoothness  or 
roughness. 

282.  Other  matters  which  determine  the 
proper  healing  of  a  large  wound  are  (/)  the 
healthfulness  of  the  wood,  {g)  the  season  of  the 
year  in  which  the  cut  is  made,  (h)  the  protec- 
tion which  the  wound  receives. 

283.  (g)  Other  things  being  the  same,  wounds 
heal  quicker  when  made  in  the  early  part  of  the 
gi'owing  season, — that  is,  in  late  spring  ;  but  the 
factors  mentioned  in  281  are  more  important 
than  the  season. 

284.  (Ji)  Dressings  do  not,  of  themselves, 
hasten  the  healing  of  wounds,  but  they  may 
keep  the  wound  sound  and  healthy  until  it  heals 
of  itself.     A  good  di'essing  is  one  which  is  anti- 


SUBSKQl'ENT     CAHK     nV     TIIK     IM.ANT  1  ('..'• 

s«'j)t'u'  and  ilucaMi',  wliicli  atTt»nls  iii«'fli;iiii«-;il 
protoetii)!!,  ami  wliii'li  i\ih><,  not  of  itsrll'  iiijui"t' 
til''  tissue  of  tln'  plant. 

■J'',     lilt'   jirinriph  s   of   jiritniiu/ 

■_'>•"•.  W<'  pniiif  {<!)  to  niodity  tin*  viir«»r  ot"  tlir 
plant,  (/>)  t»»  iniMlnc'  larp-r  an<l  Ix'ttrr  tVuits  «»i- 
flowers,  {<•)  to  kct'p  tin'  plant  within  inaiiap' 
able  shape  and  limits,  {d)  to  make  the  plant 
ln'ar  more  or  ln'ar  less,  {(')  to  remove  super- 
thious  or  injured  pai-ts,  (f)  to  fa<Mlitate  s])ray- 
ing  and  harvestin^^,  (//)  to  I'acilitat*'  tillair*', 
(//)  to  make  the  jtlant  assninf  some  «l«»sirt'd  t'oiin 
(  properly,   trainin<r ) . 

2S(J.  Heavy  prunin.Lr  <»t"  the  top  tends  to 
in<'reas«'  growth,  or  tin-  pnxhu'tion  of  woo*!. 
Heavy  pruning  of  tli<'  root  tends  to  lessm  tln' 
prodnetiou  of  wo«m1.  \Vat»'i-sjt!-outs  generally 
tollow  heavy  jiriniinir.  partieulai'ly  if  the  pruninL' 
is  performed   in  winter. 

2S7.  Cheeking  growth,  so  long  as  the  plant 
remains  healthy,  tends  to  eause  <»vergrown  plants 
to  hear.  One  nutans  of  cheeking  growtii  is  to 
withhohl  t'<'rtili/.ers  an<l  tillage;  anoth^-r  i'>  t.> 
resort  \o  root-pruning;  another  is  to  head-in  or 
cut-l>a<-k  the  young  shoots.  Some  j)lants,  how- 
ever, bear  most  profusely  whon  they  are  \eiy 
vigorous;  hut  they  are  such,  for  the  most  part, 
as    have    been    moderately    and  continuously    vig 


166  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

orous  from  the  beginning,  rather  than  those 
which  are  forced  into  very  heavy  growth  after  a 
long  period  of  neglect. 

288.  The  heading-in  of  young  growths  tends 
to  force  out  the  side  shoots  and  to  develop  the 
dormant  buds.  The  more  a  X->lant  is  headed-in, 
therefore,  the  more  thinning-out  it  will  require. 
Heading-in  induces  fruitfulness  by  checking 
growth  and  bj^  encouraging  the  formation  of 
side  spurs  (upon  which  fruit  may  be  borne). 

289.  Heavy  pruning  every  few  years — which 
is  the  custom — tends  to  keep  trees  over-vigorous 
and  unproductive.  Mild  pruning  every  year 
maintains  the  equilibrium  of  the  plant,  and  tends 
to  make  it  fruitful. 

3.  By  Keeping  Enemies  in  Check 
3a.    The  kinds  of  enemies 

290.  Of  plant  enemies  or  diseases,  there  are 
three  main  types, — insects,  parasitic  fungi,  con- 
stitutional or  physiological  troubles. 

.  291.  Insect  pests  are  of  two  general  types,  so 
far  as  their  method  of  feeding  is  concerned, — 
insects  which  chew,  or  bite  off  pieces  of  the  plant, 
and  those  which  suck  their  food  from  the  juices 
of  the  plant.  In  the  former  class  are  the  worms 
and  beetles  ;  in  the  latter  are  plant- lice,  scale 
insects,    and    the    so-called    true    bugs    (as    the 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT       167 

squnsh-buu:  or  stink-butr,  ainl  tin-  Ifuf-lioppers). 
We  may  classify  injuiious  insects  apiiii,  without 
roftMvnco  to-  their  mode  of  takiiiji:  foo*!,  iiit«» 
those  which  live  and  feed  on  the  outsid«'  of  tlx- 
plant,  and  those  which,  as  borers  and  apph'- 
wornis,   burrow  and  feed  inside  the  tissue 

292.  Of  funufous  pests,  the  farmer  uiay  lecotj- 
nize  two  j^roups,— thos««  which  live  wholly  on  the 
outside  of  the  host  (as  the  po\v(|fry  mildfw  ot' 
the  j^'ape,  pea  mildew),  and  thos«»  which  live 
wholly  or  in  part  inside  the  tissues  (as  apple- 
scab,  black-knot,  potato  mildew).  ^fost  inju- 
rious funiri  are  of  the  latter  kind.  Fungous 
troubles  are  n«'arly  always  marked  by  <lclniitely 
diseased   spots  on   the   leav«'s  or  twii^'s. 

293.  Physi(^l<»«^ical  or  c»»nstitMtion;il  troubles 
are  those  winch  affect  the  whole  plant  or  an 
entire  leaf  or  branch,  and  the  cause  of  which  is 
not  appan^nt  on  the  exterior.  These  troubles 
may  be  due  to  j^erms  or  bacteria  workinu:  within 
the  tissues  (as  pear-blii,dit ) ,  or  to  some  dilliculty 
in  the  nutrition  of  the  plant.  Th«'S«'  troubles 
are  generally  not  marked  by  <lciinitely  disc»ased 
spots  or  blemishes,  but  by  tlie  jifradinil  dyin^  of 
an  entire  leaf,  branch  or  |ilant. 

36.    The  pfrirnlivis  and  trnwilies 

294.  Keepinj;  the  plants  vii^orous  and  healthy 
IS  tlie  first   step  toward^;   '* i.tr..!   ,,f   posts   mim! 


168  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

diseases.  Clean  tillage,  rotation  of  crops,  i^lant- 
ing  varieties  which  are  least  liable  to  attack,  and 
careful  attention  to  prevent  all  the  conditions 
which  seem  to  favor  the  breeding  of  insects  and 
the  spread  of  diseases,  are  quite  as  important  as 
destroying  the  enemies  ;  for  "an  ounce  of  pre- 
vention is  worth  a  pound  of  cure." 

295.  Insects  are  destroyed  by  three  general 
means  :  (a)  by  killing  them  directly,  as  by  hand- 
picking,  digging  out  borers  ;  (h)  by  killing  them 
by  means  of  some  caustic  application  to  their 
bodies ;  (c)  by  poisoning  them  by  poisoning 
their  food.  In  some  instances,  insects  may  be 
kept  away  by  covering  the  plants  with  some 
material,  as  lime,  to  which  the  insects  object ; 
but  this  method  of  fighting  insects  is  usually 
unsatisfactory.  A  substance  which  is  used  to 
destroy  an  insect  is  called  an  insecticide. 

296.  (h)  The  caustic  applications  or  insecti- 
cides must  be  used  for  those  insects  which  suck 
their  food  (291).  Kerosene,  kerosene  emulsion, 
soap  washes,  lime-and-sulfur,  miscible  oils,  to- 
bacco, and  the  like,  are  the  materials  used;  and 
plant-lice,  scale  insects,  plant-bugs,  thrips,  and 
leaf -hoppers  are  the  insects  thus  treated. 

297.  (c)  The  poisonous  applications  are  used 
for  the  chewing  insects  that  prey  upon  the 
outside  of  the  plant  (not  for  borers,  which  are 
usually  dug  out) .   Paris  green  and  other  arsenicals 


SL'BSEQUENT     (AKK     OF     THK     PLANT  1G9 

and  wliitt*  lu'lh'horo  ivv  tlu'  nialnials  coiiimoiily 
iist^il  ;  and  worms,  potato-bugs,  and  all  Icaf- 
clu'wing  pests,  are  tlie  insects  tlius  treated. 

l2I>S,  Fuiiiri  are  killed  \>y  niat«M-ials  which  eon- 
tain  sulfur  or  copper.  I''inii::i  which  live  inside 
the  leaf  or  stem  (2!I'J;  cannot  l>c  killed  directly 
l»y  aj>j>lications,  hut  the  ]>arts  which  project  into 
the  air  (the  frnitinir  p<»rtions)  can  he  destroyed 
and  the  funirns  therehy  weakened  and  checked  ; 
and  the  spores  (which  answci'  to  seeds)  cannot 
grow  on  a  sui'face  which  is  covered  with  coppo- 
or  sulfur.  The  hest  treatment  of  j»lant  diseases, 
therefore,  is  to  make  the  application  lu't'ore  the 
disease  gains  a  foothold.  A  substance  which  is 
used  to  destroy  fungi  is  caUed  a  fungicide. 

2!)'.).  The  l>est  general  fungiei«le  is  the  Bor- 
deaux mixture,  made  of  lime  and  sulfate  of 
coj.per.  It  not  only  ilestroys  the  lungi,  hut 
adln*res  long  to  the  jilant.  Another  good  fungi- 
eide  is  carbonate  of  copp«'r  ;  and  it  is  preferred 
for  ormunental  plants  and  for  late  apjdication  to 
fruit,  be«*ause  it  does  not  discoloi'  or  s<»il  the 
leaves  i}]-  fruits. 

.'IiX).    The    application  of  insecticides  and  fun 
gi<'ides  is  usually  made  in   water,  with   a  syrimr*' 
or  pump,  or   by  means  of  a  spray  ;    and  th.r.l.\ 
has  arisen  the  practice  of  spraying. 

.".<>1.  In  order  that  spraying  shall  be  success- 
ful,   it    nni>t    (ii)   ap]»Iy   the    materials    which    will 


170  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

destroy  the  pest  in  question  and  yet  not  injure 
the  plant,  {b)  be  thoroughly  done,  so  that  no 
part  of  the  plant  is  left  unprotected,  (c)  be 
performed  the  moment  the  enemy  appears,  or,  in 
the  case  of  fungous  diseases,  as  soon  as  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  pest  is  coming. 

302.  The  best  machine  or  pump  is  the  one 
which  throws  the  finest  spray  the  farthest  dis- 
tance. Other  factors  are  the  capacity  of  the 
pump,  its  strength,  its  durability,  its  lightness, 
the  ease  with  which  it  works. 

303.  Spraying  will  not  keep  all  fungous  dis- 
eases in  check  ;  and,  in  any  case,  it  should  be 
supplemented  by  sanitation,  as  by  burning  or 
burying  the  fallen  diseased  leaves  and  fruits,  the 
cutting  away  of  infected  parts,  and  the  like. 
Some  fungous  diseases,  as  the  grain  smuts,  are 
carried  over  from  year  to  year  in  the  seed  ;  and 
the  proper  treatment  is  to  soak  the  seed  in  a 
fungicide.  The  constitutional  diseases  (293) 
must  be  treated  by  other  means  than  spraying, 
usually  by  burning  the  affected  part  or  plant 
(294,  294a). 

SUGGESTIONS    ON   CHAPTER   XI 

267a.  "The  daisy-cursed  meadows  of  the  East  are  those 
which  have  been  long  mown  and  are  badly  'run,'  or  else  those 
which  were  not  properly  made,  and  the  grass  obtained  but  a 
poor  start.     The  farmer  may  say  that  the  daisies  have  'run  out' 


SUBSEQUENT     CARE     OF      THK     I'L.VNT 


171 


the  prass,  but  ll»u  faot  is  that  the  nu'iulow  begun  to  fail,  ami  Iho 
daisies  quickly  scizod  upon  the  opportunity  to  gain  a  foot- 
hold. •  •  »  The  weedy  lawns  uro  those  which  have  n 
thill  turf,  and  the  best  treatment  is  to  scratch  the  grouml 
lightly  with  ar  iron-toothed  rake,  apply  fertilizer,  and  sow  nioie 
seed."  "The  agricultural  conditions  in  tlie  Dakutas  and  other 
parts  of  our  Plains  rei^ion  are  just  such  as  to  encourage  a  hardy 
intruder  like  the  Russian  thistle.  An  average  of  eight  or  nine 
bushels  of  wheat   per  acre  is  itself  proof  of  superticial   farming; 


i 


Kij:    M        \   i;:iiii{  lilu» 


Fig'  65.     A  llehl  snni;  |il(>* 
for  very  xhallow  work. 


but  the  chief  fault  with  this  western  agriculture  is  the  eontino- 
OU8  cropping  with  one  crop, —  wheat." — Unilry,  "  Surrirnl  of  thr 
Ciitikt,"  pp.   J'Jti,   l'X5. 

270(1.  Maize  may  be  harrowed  until  it  is  four  inches  higli. 
The  plants  will  straighten  up.  This  harnjwing  is  cheaper  than 
cultivating;  and  if  the  land  is  put  in  gooil  condition  very  early 
in  the  life  of  the  crop,  much  h-ss  subsequent  tillage  is  requiri'd. 
In  general,  narrow -toothed  harrows  should  be  used  (Fig.  21). 
but  the  stylo  of  tool  roust  be  adapted  to  the  particular  land  in 
question. 

277<i.  If  the  plowing  has  Iwen  thorough  f<»r  the  firwt  few 
yeors  after  the  orchard  is  planted,  the  ground  should  Ik»  mo 
mellow  that  very  light  plowing  will  answer  thereiifter.  There 
will  Ikj  no  sod  to  teor  up  ami  to  plow  under,  and  th<-  tn-e  rootii 
will  b«'  deep  in  the  grounil.  when*  they  can  And  moinfure.  A 
gang-plow  (Fig.  64)  should   be  sartlcii-nt  for  tin-   ••i-ridi.'   plowmir 


172 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


in  most  mature  orchards,  unless  there  is  a  heavy  growth  of 
cover-crop  to  plow  under.  A  tool  tor  still  shallower  plowing-  is 
shown  in  Fig.  65.  This  is  excellent  for  orchards  on  light  oi 
loose  soils,   although   its  height  makes  it  more  difficult  to  handle 


H'ig.  66.    The  proper  way  to 
make  the  wound. 


Fig.  67.    The  wrong  way  to 
make  the  cut. 


about  low-headed  trees.  For  full  discussions  of  the  tilling  of 
fruit  plantations,  see  "Principles  of  Fruit-Growing,"  Chapter  iii. 
278a.  If  some  of  the  limbs  are  taken  from  an  apple  tree  for 
the  purpose  of  making  it  bear  better,  the  operation  is  pruning  ; 
if  the  tree  is  sheared  or  trimmed  to  make  it  round-headed,  the 
operation  is  training.  A  rose  or  a  grape-vine  may  be  pruned 
by  cutting  away  part  of  the  wood;  it  may  be  trained  on  wires 
or  to  the  side  of  a  house. 


SUBSEQl'KNT  CARK  OF  THK  PLANT 


\i:i 


'279o.  On  the  suliject  of  tlio  stnipplt*  for  pxistonot*  in  tlie 
tree  top,  consult,  Observation  iv.  in  "Lessons  with  Plants,"  nmi 
Chapter  i.  in  "  Pnuiing-Book."  The  philosophical  hearin>fs  of 
this  fact  of  competition  are  presented 
in  Essiiy  iii.,  "Survival  of  the  Unlike." 

281rt,  Other  things  being  equal,  the 
closer  the  wound  to  the  brunch,  the 
quicker  it  will  lieal.  The  suiootlier  the 
wound,  tlie  better  and  quicker  it  will 
heal.  Figs.  (j()  and  G7  illustrate  riglity, 
and  wrong  methods.  For  full  dis- 
cussion of  the  healing  of  wounds,  read 
Chapter  iii.  in  the  "  Pruning- Book." 

284*1.  An  antiseptic  dressing  is  one 
which  prevents  genus  or  microbes  from 
crowing  on  the  surface  of  the  wound  ; 
for  the  decay  which  follows  wounds  is 
the  wi>rk  of  germs  and  fungi.  In  gen- 
eral, the  best  dressing  for  wounds  is 
lead  paint,  Wa.x  is  not  dunible  enough, 
iior  is  it  antiseptic.  Bordeaux  mixture 
i-i  good  for  its  antiseptic  properties,  but  is  not  durable,  and  it 
affords   little  protection  from  the  weather. 

28ort.    The  principles  of  pruning  are  discussed   under  twenty 
heads  in  Chapter  iv.  of  "  Pruning  Book." 

291fl.  The  chewing  or  biting  insects  eat  up  the  parts  upon 
which  they  prey.  Fig.  G8  is  an  example  of  such  work.  The 
sucking  insects  do  not  eat  up  the  part,  but  they  often  b-ave  dis- 
tinct marks  of  tlieir  work,  as  in  Fig.  G9.  A  plant- bug  is  shown 
in  Fig.  70.  The  true  weevils  and  curoulios  are  biting  in^'-.t. 
although  they  have  snouts  (Fig.  71). 

292<i.  A  fungus  is  a  plant.  It  is  destitute  of  chlorophvn  ..r 
leaf -green.  It  lives  on  living  organisms  (or  is  parasitic),  or  on 
dead  or  decaying  matter  (or  is  saprophytic,  as  mushr^>om«  and 
toadi«tools).  Some  kinds,  as  toadstools,  are  large  and  con 
"ipicuous  ;  >>th<rs,  as  nioUls,  arc  small  and  fragile  ;  while  still 
others  are   nearly  or  quite  microscopic.     The  plural  of  fuoi^s  is 


Kig  r^* 


larvB.  — a  rhowlng  iuii«<;t. 


174 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


fungi  (rarely  written  funguses).  As  an  adjective,  the  word  is 
written  fungous,  as  a  fungous  disease.  A  fungoid  disease  is  a 
fungus-like  disease,  the  exact  origin  of  which  may  not  be  known 
or  .specified.  Eusts,  mildews  and  leaf -blights  are  types  of  fun- 
gous diseases. 

292b.    The  plant  or  the  animal  upon  or  in  which  a  parasitic 
fungus  lives  is  known  as  its  host.     The  fungus  injures  its  best  by 


Fig.  69. 


Work  of  the  four-lined  leaf-bug— a  sutking  insect — on  currant 
foliage. 


robbing  it  of  nutriment  and  sometimes  by  breaking  up  its  cellular 
structure,  and  by  obstructing  the  breathing-pores  and  interfering 
with  the  movement  of  its  fluids. 

293?;.    Physiological  troubles  may  be  termed  internal  troubles, 
although  the  germs  which  cause  some  of   them   enter  from  tha 


SUBSEQUENT  CARE  OF  THE  PLANT 


175 


plant  bug.— a  sucklnc 
insect. 


ontsi  Ic.  Tliore  is  no  oxtornal  ^owlh  of  a  functus,  uiul  nmly  nny 
Will  detiiii'd  small  spots  on  the  leaves.  Fig.  ""J  shows  the  spots  of 
a  funpoiis  ilist-aso  ;  if  this  leaf  had  been  attaeked  by  a  hacterial 
or  physiological  disease,  the  entire  leaf  would  probably  have 
shown  signs  of  failing,  for  the  food  supply  is  usually  out  off  in 
the  leaf-stalk  or  the  main  veins.  In  Fig.  72,  however,  ea<'h  8|)Ot 
represents  a  distinct  attack  of  the  fungus. 
Fig.  73  is  a  type  of  phy.iiologial  trouble,  the 
edge  of  the  loaf  dying  from  the  cutting-ofT  of 
its  food  supply  ;  this  dead  border  will  widiii 
until  the   leaf    dies. 

294(1.  Physicians  treat  some  diseases  by 
prophylaxis,  —  that  is,  by  giving  attention  to 
means  of  sanitation  and  of  preventing  the 
spread  of  the  disorder.     Farmers  must  do  the 

same.       Wire-worms  are    rarely    troublesome    fig.  To.    Tlu>  t«riii«»i«l 
in  short  and  quick   rotations,  particularly    in 
tiiose   in  which  sod   is  not  a  prominent   fea- 
ture.     Club-root    of    the    cabbage    is    rarely 
tn)uble8ome   on   land     which    has   not    grown 
cabbages  or   allied    plants    for  a   few  yean*. 
Apple-scab  is  lea.st  serious  in  those  orchards    Fig. 71.  Thc»tr»wlwrr> 
which  have  been  thorough'y  sprayetl   in  pre-       wccvU.  —  a   cbewlug 
vious   years.     Plum- rot  is  least   troublesome      •«>»•«»• 
when   the  fruit  is  well  thinned.     Rose-bugs  seldom  trouble  vine- 
.  nrds  which  are  on  strong  or  lieavy  lands. 

296a.  Kerosene  emulsion  may  be  made  as  follows;  Hard, 
••oft  or  wliuU<-oil  soap,  'j  lb  ;  water,  1  gal.;  kenisene,  2  gals. 
I>i!f»<>ivo  the  soap  in  hot  water;  remove  from  the  fire  and  whilo 
•  fill  hot  add  the  keroNfiie.  I'ump  the  litpiid  back  into  ititelf 
for  five  or  ten  minutes  or  until  it  becomes  n  creamy  mast.  If 
properly  made,  the  oil  will  not  separate  out  on  cociling.  For  n)«e 
on  dormant  tree»«,  dilute  with  from  5  to  7  parts  of  water.  For 
killing  plant -lice  on  foliage,  dilute  with  10  to  1.5  parts  water. 

(Vuiio  oil  emnlsinn  i<«  maile  in  the  same  way  by  substituting 
crude  oil  in  place  of  keroHi-ne. 


^k 


^^^ 


176 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


297a.  The  Paris  green  mixture  is  eomponnded  by  using  Paris 
green  1  pound,  water  150  to  300  gallons.  If  tlais  mixture  is  to 
be  used  upon  fruit  trees,  1  pound  of  quicklime  should  l)e  added. 
Repeated  applications  will  injure  most  foliage,  unless  the  lime  is 
used.     Paris  green  may  be  added  to  Bordeaux  mixture. 

297b.  Arsenate  of  lead  is  now  much  used  for  chewing  insects. 
This  can  be  applied  in  a  stronger  mixture  than  other  arsenical 


Fig.  72.    The  spots  of  hollyhock  rest,— ;i  fungous  disease. 


poisons  without  injuring  the  foliage.  It  is,  therefore,  much  used 
against  beetles  and  other  insects  that  are  hard  to  poison.  It  comes 
in  the  form  of  a  paste  and  should  be  mixed  thoroughly  with  a  small 
amount  of  water  before  placing  in  the  sprayer,  else  the  nozzle 
will  clog.  It  is  used  in  strengths  varying  from  4  to  10  lbs.  per 
100  gallons,  depending  on  the  kind  of  insect  to  be  killed. 
Arsenate  of  lead  and  Bordeaux  mixture  can  be  combined  without 
lessening  the  value  of  either. 

297c.    The    lime -and -sulfur  wash,   for   scale   insects,   is   now 


.-.^?w    ^|t 


SUBSEQUENT     CAKE     OF     THE      I'LANT  177 

tnueb  used:  Qiiickliiue,  20  lbs.;  sulfur  (flour  or  flotrersl,  15  lbs.; 
water,  50  gals.  Place  tlie  liiuo  in  a  k«'ttle.  Add  hot  witer  (frad- 
uully  in  suflieitMit  quantity  to  produce  the  tuost  rnpid  Hlakiufc 
of  the  lime.  When  the  lime  begins  to  slake,  add  the  sulfur  and 
stir  together.    If  convfiiient,  n 

kft'p  the  mixture  covurod 
with  burlap  to  save  the  heat. 
After  slaking  has  ceased, 
add  more  water  and  boil  ti>-  '    _ 

mixture  one  hour.  As  ' 
sulfur  goes  into  sohition,  a 
rich  orange-red  or  dark  green 
color  will  appear.  After  boil- 
ing sufliciently,  add  water  to 
the  required  amount  and 
strain  into  the  spray  tank. 
The    wnsli    is  nio>t  effective  ^ 

when  applied  wuira.  This 
mixture  can  be  applied  safely 
only  when  the  trees  are  dor- 
mant,— late   in    the   autumn 

after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  ~y 

or  early  in  the  spring  before  Fig.  73.  Dltewe  of  cucumber  lent,  the  Jyin» 
the  buds  swell.  niarKin  imlicntltis  that  tlip  tr<>uM«<   i»  duo 

2W,t.    Bordeaux  mixture      »o  .omc  cutting  «ff  of  the  food  .up^b. 
is  the  standard  fungicide.     It  is  made  of  copper  sulfate,  5  lbs.; 
stone  lime  or  quicklime  (unslakeili,  5  lbs.;  water,  TiO  gals.     The 
strength  varies  according  to  the  plant  to   be  sprayed      Bordeaux 
maybe  prepared  in  the  following  way: 

Copper  sulfalr.  —  Di^xnlve  the  required  amount  of  copper  - 
fate  in  wafer  in  the  proportion  of  one  poutid  to  one  gallon  neveriii 
hours  b«'fore  the  solution   is  needed;  suspend  the  copper   nulfnte 
crystals  in  a  sack  near  the  top  of  the  water.     In  ca.se  I 
tites  of  stock   solution  are  needed,  two  pounds  of  ooi 
fray  be  diH<»<>lveu  in  one  gallon  of  wafer.     Lnnt. — Sliike  ti,. 
in  a  tub  or  trough.     Add  the  wwter  slowly  at  llmt,  so  that  ti  ■ 
'^romblea  into  »  fine  powder.    If  small  quantitiea  of  lime  Are  u»ed, 


178  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGKICULTURE 

hot  water  is  preferred  When  completely  slaked,  or  entirely 
powdered,  add  more  water.  When  the  lime  has  slaked  sufficiently, 
add  water  to  bring  it  to  a  thick  milk,  or  to  a  certain  number  of 
gallons.  The  amount  required  for  each  tank  of  spray  mixture  can 
be  secured  approximately  from  this  stock  mixture,  which  should 
not  be  allowed  to  dry  out.  To  male  Bordeaux.  —  Use  5  gallons  of 
stock  solution  of  copper  sulfate  for  every  fifty  gallons  of  Bordeaux 
required.  Pour  this  into  the  tank.  Add  water  until  the  tank  is 
about  two-thirds  full.  From  the  stock  lime  mixture  take  the  re- 
quired amount.  Dilute  this  a  little  by  adding  water,  and  strain 
into  the  tank.  Stir  the  mixture,  and  add  water  to  make  the  re- 
quired amount.  It  is  preferable  to  dilute  the  copper  sulfate  solu- 
tion. Never  pour  together  the  strong  stock  mixtures  and  dilute 
afterward.  Tlie  ferrocijanide  test. — It  is  not  necessary  to  weigh  the 
lime  in  making  Bordeaux,  for  a  test  can  be  used  to  determine 
when  enou<:h  of  a  stock  lime  mixture  has  been  added.  Dissolve  an 
ounce  of  yellow  prussia'e  of  potash  iu  a  pint  of  water.  Add  the 
lime  mixture  to  tlie  diluted  copper  sulfate  solution  until  the  ferro- 
eyanide  solution  will  not  turn  brown  when  dropjied  f lom  the  bottle 
into  the  mixture.    It  is  best  to  add  an  excess  of  lime. 

2996.  Copper  carbonate  is  used  as  follows:  Copper  carbo- 
nate, 1  ounce;  ammonia,  enough  to  dissolve  the  cojiper;  water, 
9  gallons.  Before  making  the  solution,  make  a  paste  of  the 
copper  earbonat "  by  mixing  it  with  a  little  water.  Use  20°  am- 
monia, and  dilute  with  7  to  8  voiunu-s  of  water.  Then  giadujilly 
add  the  necessary  amount  to  the  copper  caibonate  until  all  is 
dissolved.  Use  only  the  clear  liquid.  Dilute  as  rfquired.  For 
same  purposes  as  Bordeaux,  but  does  not  soil  foliage  or  fruit. 

303a.  Smut-infested  seeds  are  treated  by  corrosive  sublimate, 
formalin,  copper  sulfate,  hot  water,  and  other  means.  For  the 
first,  use  corrosive  sublimate,  1,  oz. ;  water,  7  gals.  It  is  an  effec- 
tive solution  for  potato  scab.    Soak  seed  potatoes  1%  bonis. 

Formalin  is  a  gas  dissolved  in  water.  Commercially,  it  has  a 
strength  of  about  forty  per  cent.  One  pint  dissolved  in  tliiity 
gallons  of  water  is  used  effectively  in  preventing  potato  scab 
(soak  tTibers  for  half  an  hour,  and  plant  in  clean  soil),  or  smut  of 
oats  and  stinking  smut  of  wheat  (soak  seed  in  solution  for  ten 
minutes,  drain  and  sow  the  next  day). 


CuAriEU    Xll 
PA^^TURKS,    MKADoWS.    AXD    FOKAOE 


/.  /'.  hum: ins 


1.     (irfiss 


304.  Tlie  t'uii(lain<'iital  ci-Dp  is  j^rass.  it 
covers  the  land  as  with  a  hlaiikot,  prepaivs  the 
soil  for  othtT  crops,  and  affords  siist«Miance  for 
farm  animals. 

'M)').  Grass  is  one  of  the  inii)oi-tant  crops  in 
rotations  ;  and  a  rotation  is  <»sscntial  to  general 
hn^handrv  if  productiveness  of  tlie  land  is  main- 
tainted.  Rotations  improve  the  farm  (//)  heeausc 
tic  land  rccMMVcs  ditTcrcnt  trcatm»Mits  in  different 
years,  so  that  faiilfs  of  one  ycai  may  lie  cor- 
rected tlie  followinp:  year,  {h)  no  one  element  of 
plant- food  is  likely  to  l)e  exhausted,  (r)  one 
crop  leaves  the  land  in  best  contlition  for 
another,  (d)  roots  and  stubble  of  grass,  clover 
and  cereals  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil. 
('■)  they  allow  the  use  of  clovers,  which  add 
nitrogen,  and  {^f)  bring  up  food  from  the  sub- 
soil (170,  170^/),  (ff)  weeds  and  pests  are  kept 
in  check,  (h)   labor  is   economized. 

a7») 


180  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

306.  The  number  of  plants  of  grass  on  a 
given  area  should  be  governed  by  the  uses  for 
which  they  are  grown,  their  habits  of  growth 
and  their  size.  The  smaller  grasses  thrive  well 
if  the  plants  stand  near  together.  The  larger 
grasses,  as  maize,  should  have  much  room 
between  the  plants  or  hills.  The  plants  in  a 
pasture  field  should  be  more  numerous  than  in 
the  meadow,  and  more  numerous  in  the  meadow 
than  in  fields  devoted  to  raising  grass  seed. 

2.    Permanent   Pastures 
2a.   Preparation  of  the   land 

307.  When  the  land  is  fairly  level  and  can  be 
fitted  without  too  much  expense,  it  is  best  to 
plow  the  ground  two  or  three  times  during  the 
summer,  the  first  time  in  early  spring,  and  to 
keep  the  surface  fine  and  clean  by  frequent 
tillage.  This  treatment  improves  the  physical 
condition  of  the  soil,  destroys  weeds 'and  weed 
seeds,  makes  much  dormant  plant -food  availa- 
ble, and  conserves  moisture  so  that  the  surface 
soil,  in  most  cases,  will  be  damp  enough  to  cause 
seeds  to  germinate  even  in  August. 

308.  On  friable  soils,  as  on  the  western 
prairies  and  in  some  other  places,  a  single  plow- 
ing and  frequent  shallow  surface  tillage  may  be 


PASTl|{KS,     MK.VlxtWS.     AM)     |i»KA<tK  181 

the  best  tivaliiuMii.  On  it>rl;iiintMl  l)<>i;ii:y  lands 
which  have  l)eeii  ciiltivatt'd  Umg  enougli  to 
»Ma«li('att>  wild  j)lants,  th<>  soil  is  so  li«j:ht  that 
plowiiii;  may  !)•'  uniuM'cssary.  Hero  a  little 
scarifying  of  th«»  surfa<M^  and  frt'<|n*'nt  use  of  the 
lojlci-  will   likely  irivc  hcst  results. 

i>()!>.  A  good  pasture  may  also  he  secured  hy 
less  exi)ensive  ])reparation,  if  more  time  is  taken. 

When   roUiiiLr  land   has   1 n  de\i.ted    to  the  pr<'- 

duction  of  cereals  and  hay  until  the  .^oil  fails  t(» 
produce  satisfa<*tory  croj>s,  it  is  often  wise  to 
al)andon  the  uni)rolital>le  rotation  and  to  devott^ 
the  land  to  ]>ernian<'nt  pasturage  ;  hut  few  per- 
sons are  willing  to  s})end  as  nuich  time  and 
niont'V  as  will  ln«  necessary  to  secure  a  good 
pasture  at  once.  In  that  ease,  sow  a  liheral 
i|uantity  of  pasture  seeds  in  a  crop  of  thinly 
seeded  wheat,  rye,  harley  or  buckwheat,  the  land 
haviiiLT  Iteeii  fitted  t'oi"  the  cereals  with  extra 
can',  and  jtlant-food  added  hy  a  lihei-ai  a|>pliea- 
tion  of    fertilizers  or  manure. 

^510.  Since  the  juusture  is  not  to  he  plowed 
aft«»r  it  is  once  seeded,  it  is  necessary  to  prepare 
the  entire  soil  .so  perf«»etly  that  it  will  form  a 
<'omforta)>le  home  and  provide  nourishment  for 
the  plants  for  many  years.  If  the  land  is  poor, 
fertility  should  i)e  applied.  liut  pn»pare  the 
land  as  )»est  we  may,  it  will  not  he  nuiny  years 
before  much    of    th*-    ••  •' lily  available    plant-fo.-d 


182  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

will  have  been  used  by  the  plants,  and  some  of 
the  products  of  the  animals  which  consume  the 
grass  will  never  be  returned  to  the  pasture;  hence, 
the  pasture  will  tend  to  become  less  productive  as 
the  years  pass.  And,  as  the  plants  become  old, 
they  are  less  vigorous  than  young  ones,  not  only 
because  of  age,  but  from  frequent  injuries  from 
the  animals.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  main- 
tain the  pasture,  as  well  as  to  prepare  it  in  the 
beginning. 

2b.  Maintaining  the  pasture 

311.  The  grass  should  be  of  the  right  kind. 
In  the  North,  June- grass  or  blue-grass  is  the 
most  permanent  pasture  grass,  and  it  is  the  one 
which  gradually  works  into  pastures  after  other 
grasses  begin  to  fail.  Timothy  is  commonly  sown, 
about  six  quarts  to  the  acre.  A  little  June- grass 
seed  may  be  added,  but  this  grass  may  usually 
be  depended  upon  to  come  in  of  itself.  Orchard- 
grass  is  useful  in  shady  pastures  and  stands  graz- 
ing well,  but  grows  too  much  in  stools.  Eed-top 
is  useful  in  the  moister  lands.  In  the  South, 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan  clover  are  best. 

312.  After  the  pasture  hag  been  secured,  the 
grasses  must  be  maintained  for  many  years  in 
full  vigor.  It  is  pre-supposed  that  the  clovers 
have  been  used  to  a  limited  extent  in  the  grass- 
seed  mixtures  when  the  pasture  was  first  made, 


PASTURES.  mi:aim)\v>.  am>    forage  183 

since  the  elovors  art'  h.)>t  |»lauts  to  tli*'  ^ra>M'8. 
They  start  early  ami  inot.'ct  ilio  lat<'r-^owing 
i^H'asses.  Most  of  the  clovers  live  but  from  one 
to  three  years.  Tiie  clovers,  in  common  with 
t)tln'r  legumes,  contain  a  large  percentage  of 
potential  nitrogen  (110,  138,  1«J0).  The  i)asture 
grasses  are  nnich  l)«»nefited  hy  a  full  sn])ply  of 
nitrogen,  l»ut  they  can  secure  little,  if  any,  fn>m 
the  air,  and  hence  nuist  supply  their  needs  as 
best  th«'y  can  from  that  found  in  the  soil.  It 
will  then  lie  untl<'rstoo<l  how  t-ageriy  the  hungry 
grasses  fceil  on  the  decaying  short-lived  clovt-rs. 
It  will  also  l)e  understood  why  clovers  are  called 
host  ]>lants. 

ol.).  The  short-liv.d  host  plants  may  be  per- 
petuated, and  the  grasses  kept  young  and  vig- 
orons,  by  sowing  seeds  of  the  clovers  and 
1,'rasses  «'very  two  or  three  years  in  early  spring, 
and  scarifying  the  surface  with  a  sharp-toot ln'd 
harrow,  this  to  be  follow«'<l  by  the  roller.  The 
harrowing  will  not  only  tear  out  some  of  the 
<uiMM-aiUHnit»Ml  grass  roots  (270)  and  old  plants 
and  rov»'r  the  sc^mIs,  but  it  will  tond  to  ai'rate  the 
s:u*laco  soil  and  to  promote  bacinial  a<ti\iiy. 
From  tim«»  to  time,  a  light  dressing  of  faun 
mamu'es  or  of  conunercial  fertilizers  shonM  be 
applie*!,  spread  evenly,  in  the  fall. 

."{14.  An  inspection  of  tlie  field  should  be 
madti    oach    spring,    in    ord«»r   that    seed    may    i  •• 


184  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

sown  where  not  enough  plants  are  present,  and 
also  to  discover  what  kinds  of  plants  are  most 
promising,  so  that  the  supplementary  seeds  may 
be  chosen  to  best  suit  the  conditions.  Coax  the 
grass  to  grow  by  shading  the  imperfectly  cov- 
ered knolls  with  refuse  material,  such  as  is 
always  found  about  a  farmstead.  Even  a  light 
covering  of  brush  or  maize  stalks  may  be  used 
to  partly  shade  the  ground,  and  to  conserve 
moisture.  If  a  small  ration  of  grain  be  fed  the 
animals  which  graze  the  pasture,  the  field  will 
tend  to  become  more  productive  instead  of  less 
productive. 

315.  It  will  require  several  years  of  watchful 
care,  new  seed,  possibly  harrowing  and  rolling, 
some  added  plant- food  and  a  light  dressing  of 
lime,  and  the  timely  destruction  of  large,  un- 
palatable weeds,  to  secure  a  really  good,  perma- 
nent pasture.  The  eye  of  the  husbandman 
makes    the    grass    thrive. 

316.  In  the  pastures  the  grass  is  kept  short ; 
therefore  the  entire  surface  should  be  covered - 
If  areas  of  even  a  few  square  inches  are  bare, 
needless  evaporation  takes  place.  If  the  grasses 
are  kept  too  short,  the  rays  of  the  sun  will  take 
up  much  soil  moisture  which  should  have  been 
taken  up  by  the  plants,  since  the  soil  will  not 
be  well  shaded.  If  the  plants  are  allowed  to 
grow    tall     and     produce    seed,     then    they    are 


PASTTRKS.    MKADnWs.    A\l'     K(»K.\<;K  iSj 

weaktMird.  To  |»i('V«'iit  till'  tail  i^rnwtli,  mow  the 
pasture,  it"  thero  an»  not  oiiouirli  animals  to  itr»»- 
vent  til?  i^rrass  t'lom  s«>»Mlin,ir,  aM<l  l«'av«'  tin*  cut 
mat«'rial  to  shad*'  the  soil.  Aim  to  jn-t'S^'rvc 
the  living  irrass  shadf  intact.  Suhstitntc  yonn^ 
plants  for  tin*  ol<l  ones.  l'n»vont  tho  soil  from 
l)»»coininj?  a<i<l  !»>  ii^ht  applications  of  lime  juitl 
l)y  harrowinir  it.  .\iitl,  so  tar  as  possil)!*',  ox- 
oivisc  timely  caic  to  jucvcnt  the  jtlants  from  hc- 
comiiii^  hun«ri"y  ami  thirsty. 

."117.  IIcji',  then,  in  a  nul-shdl,  arc  the  ele- 
ments of  a  p)0(l,  peiinaneiit  )»astui*e  :  su|>erioi' 
))rej>aration  of  soil,  suitahle  and  alumdant  seeds 
sown  in  Aug'nst,  and  liirht  pastnrin.ir  the  lirst 
season,  or,  l)etter,  mowin;^  the  first  year  ;  and 
appropriate  seods  and  jdant-food  nmst  he  added 
from  time  to  time,  as  re(iuired. 


3.     Mm  (lows 

•\n.    Tfm/iontry    mnnhnrs 

.'n>.  In  ^^rain-^^rowin;;  districts,  the  meadow 
may  oi'iuipy  from  one  to  three  years  in  a  r<»la 
tion.  In  dairy  districts,  meadows  are  often  per- 
manent. The  average  yield  of  hay  in  the  North 
is  little  nK>re  than  one  ton  per  acre,  althouirli 
8ome  meadows  yield  from  two  to  three  f.-i;-.. 
and,    in     rare    cases,    fom'    tons.       The    averaL'e 


186  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

yield  is  unprofitable,  either  in  a  rotation  or  in 
a  permanent  meadow.'  As  a  crop  in  the  rota- 
tion, the  meadow  may  improve  the  soil  for 
subsequent    crops. 

319.  The  larger  yields  are  usually  secured 
from  vigorous  young  meadows  which  contain 
three  or  four  parts  of  timothy  and  one  part  of 
mixed  clovers.  If  clover  be  associated  with 
timothy  in  approximately  these  proportions, 
nearly  as  much  timothy  will  be  secured  as  if 
it  were  sown  alone,  and  the  clover,  or  host 
plants,  will  be  extra.  True,  the  clovers  mature 
more  quickly  than  the  timothy,  and  this  is 
somewhat  objectionable ;  therefore,  the  clover 
mixture  may  be  composed  largely  of  alsike  clo- 
ver, which  remains  green  longer  and  cures  lighter 
colored  than  the  medium  red  clover  does. 

320.  The  meadow  must  be  viewed  from  many 
standpoints.  For  the  city  market,  unmixed  hay 
sells  for  more  than  the  mixed,  though  the  latter 
may  be  better  and  more  palatable.  The  uses  to 
which  the  hay  is  destined  must  be  considered, 
since  horses  should  not  be  fed  much  clover, 
while  sheep  and  cattle  should  not  be  fed  hay 
composed  wholly  of  timothy  and  similar  grasses. 
But  the  meadow  remains  productive  longest 
where  the  host  plants  are  present. 

321.  Whether  it  is  best  to  leave  the  meadow 
for  some  years   and  preserve  its  productiveness 


PAbTL'KKS,    M1;aI>()\V>.    AND     FOUAOE  1 '^  ^ 

i»y  cultliug  now  sitiI,  harrow  in  j^,  and  \>\  tin-  aj»- 
plieatiou  of  plant-food,  or  to  mow  it  for  on*'  oi 
two  years  and  tlu'ii  plow  and  nse  the  land  for 
otliiM*  crops,  an'  (jurslions  wliich  must  hr  au- 
swt'H'*!  l>y  tlio  condition  of  the  meadow  and  tlu' 
cliara<'tcr  of  the  I'otation.  Thcro  is  one  inva- 
riable rule  to  be  ft)llowed,  —  if  the  meadow  fails  to 
return  two  tons  of  lield-dried  hay  to  the  a»'re, 
plow  it  up  ;  and  when  the  old  plants  are  suh- 
du-'d  antl  the  soil  put  in  i<leal  condition,  ami 
when  the  causes  which  prevented  full  success  with 
the  old  meadow  are  fully  considereil,  <'ast  in  the 
new  seed  with  understanding,  trusting  that  fuller 
success  will   he   reached. 

'M).    I'l  rnniin  itt   nuddotcs 

lillJ.  With  i)ermanent  meadows  many  new 
problems  are  presented.  Many  fields  are  of  such 
a  I'haracter  as  to  preclude  a  rotation  of  crops. 
In  such  cases  the  problem  is  presente<l  of  con- 
tinu'd  liberal  pro(hiction  without  plowing.  Low 
lands,  or  those  whicli  are  wholly  or  in  part  over- 
(lowed  for  brief  periods,  constitute  the  larger 
part  of  our  pernument  meadows.  These  low 
latids  are  tiie  li«)me  of  many  natural  grasses 
which  do  not  thrive  on  the  uplan<ls  ;  and  some 
of  the  cultivat'«d  upland  gi'asses  and  the  clovers 
are  not  at  their  best  when  grv)wn  in  wettibh 
soils. 


188  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

323.  In  lowland  meadows,  a  battle  royal, 
which  is  most  interesting  and  instructive  to 
watch,  goes  on  from  year  to  year.  Most  of  the 
plants  hold  their  places  so  tenaciously,  and  so 
many  hardy  new  ones  appear,  that  the  plants 
soon  become  too  numerous  and  then  dwarf  one 
another,  in  which  case  the  production  is  di- 
minished. On  these  moist  lands  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  securing  sufficient  plants  :  the  prob- 
lem is  rather  how  to  destroy  some  of  them,  that 
better  conditions  may  be  secured  for  those 
which  remain. 

324.  It  has  been  shown  (316)  why  the  pas- 
tures should  be  fully  covered  with  plants  ;  but 
permanent  meadows  should  have  fewer  plants. 
If  there  are  too  many,  the  grasses  will  not  grow 
to  their  full  size,  and  many  of  the  leaves  on  the 
lower  half  of  the  stalks  will  be  yellowish,  insijDid, 
and  lacking  in  aroma  because  they  have  not 
received  enough  sunlight.  If  there  are  too  many 
roots  in  the  soil,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  food 
for  all  except  when  the  soil  is  extremely  fertile 
and  moist  ;  and  few  plants  will  come  to  normal 
maturity.  The  grasses  which  are  grown  too  thick, 
and  consequently  have  been  excluded  from  a  full 
supply  of  sunlight,  are  poor  in  quality,  lijke  the 
apples  which  grow  hi  the  shade  on  the  lower 
branches. 

325.  All   this   goes  to  show  how  necessary  it 


PASTrUFS,     MF.ADoWS,     ANI>     KORAUK  1  K«» 

may  be  to  dostroy  stuiic  of  tlic  <^rass<>s  in  a  jht- 
inanont  meadow.  By  tlif  vii^oroiis  us»*  of  a 
sharj)-to<)tli('d  Imrrow,  iiiiK'li  may  l»o  <lon«'  to 
n»liov»»  tli»'  "liido-l)ouiid"  and  iimssy  <'oiiditioM,  to 
dt'stmy  plants  and  to  aorato  tlic  soil  ('J70,  '.W'A). 
A  liirlit  <ln'ssing  of  linio  will  materially  assist  in 
liltt'ratin;;  plant-fond  and  in  correcting  soil 
acidity,  as  in  pastures, 

•'{'•.    Kimls  of  grass*  s   for  meadntrs 

.'^Jti.  What  kind  and  <iuantity  of  seed  sjiould 
he  sown,  is  the  (juestioii  that  is  asked  m<»re 
fretjinMitly  tiian  any  othei,  hecause  it  is  most 
dirticult  to  answer,  in  the  i^rass  districts  of  the 
rnite<l  States,  tiinotliy  or  "l»erd's-iri-ass "  usually 
stands  first.  It  is  extrem«'ly  hardy,  lon.ir  MnimJ,  {> 
well  adaj)tt'd  to  ^razin«r,  and  yet  attains  j^ood 
size  in  tiie  meadow,  and  when  cut  at  tiie  appro- 
priate time  and  not  over-eured,  it  mak<»s  supi-rior 
hay.  The  seeds  are  not  expensive,  and  can 
usually  he  secure<l  without  admixture  of  weed 
seeds.  Timothy,  tlien,  in  most  cases,  may  form 
file  foundation.  Six  quarts  j)ei-  acre,  mor- 
less,  will  sufliee  when  use<l  alone,  and  it  nuiN  In- 
sown  at  any  time  from  early  spring  until  fall. 

'VJ7.  We  have  seen  (312,  31!))  that  elover  ailds 
to  the  longevity  and  productiveness  of  the  pn.**- 
tiire  or  meadow.       If  the  clovers  arc  use4i,  «!>out 


190  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

the  same  amount  or  a  little  more  seed  is  sown  as 
of  timothy,  but  the  plants  are  likely  to  be  winter- 
killed if  sowing  is  made  after  August. 

328.  There  are  various  secondary  and  supple- 
mentary grasses,  such  as  blue -grass,  orchard- 
grass,  red -top,  and  tall  meadow  fescue.  Some 
or  all  of  these  may  be  used  in  limited  quanti- 
ties. Seeds  of  all  these  weigh  but  fourteen 
pounds  to  the  bushel,  are  usually  sold  in  the 
chaff,  are  not  likely  to  be  pure,  and  are  difficult 
to  distribute  evenly.  In  most  places,  quite  as 
much  blue -grass  appears  as  a  volunteer  as  is 
desirable,  but,  except  in  rare  cases,  it  is  not  a 
profitable  hay  grass.  Orchard-grass  starts  early, 
tends  to  grow  in  hummocks,  does  well  in  the 
shade  and  in  close -grazed  pastures,  but  is  the 
worst  of  all  grasses  in  the  lawn,  where  only 
fine,  recumbent  grasses  and  white  clovers  are 
admissible.  Red -top  is  a  good  pasture  grass 
and  lawn  grass,  and  is  well  adapted  to  very  wet 
meadows,  although  it  does  not  make  a  first- 
class  hay.  Tall  meadow  fescue  is  one  of  the 
most  promising  recently  introduced  grasses  for 
both  meadow  and  pasture.  In  many  places  it 
has  escaped  from  the  fields  into  the  roadsides, 
where  it  shows  its  superiority  over  blue-grass 
and  even  over  timothy.  Of  these  grasses,  from 
one  to  two  bushels  of  seed  are  required  per  acre. 
All  do  well  when  sown  in  early  spring  or  in  fall. 


I 


PASTL'KES,    MKADOWS,    AND     FORAGE  I'Jl 

329.  Other  grasses,  as  sheep  fescue,  s'veet 
vernal  grass,  and  simihir  «hvarl'  grasses,  are  not 
t<»  b«^  reeonnnen<UMi  for  g»Mi«'ral  use  in  AuM-rifa. 
()th<>r  grasst's  are  adapted  to  sptvial  l«)raliti«'S, 
as  harlcy  and  wild  oats,  which  arc  «'xtensively 
usod  in  CaHt'ornia  for  liay.  Tliero  is  a  wrahli 
of  native  grasses,  but  most  of  them  give  little 
promise  for  upland  meadows. 


4.    Other    I'onuic    I'hints 

330.  The  plants  already  discussed,  together 
with  other  coarser  plants  of  the  farm  which  are 
fed  to  domestic  animals,  are  known  collect- 
ively as  foi-age  jilants  ;  although  this  term  is 
conunonly  applied  to  such  plants  as  are  not 
grown  in  |)ermanent  meadows  or  pastures.  l>y 
recent  common  consent  th<*  term  "roughage"  has 
been  sul)stituted  for  them.  P>oth  terms  are 
somewhat  indelinite.  The  words  usually  imply 
somewhat  unconccntrated,  dried  materials,  to 
which  some  c<tiicfntrated  food  niu>^t  be  acMed 
if  aiujile  growth,  development  and  surplus  pro- 
ducts,  as    milk,   are   .secured. 

331.  When  forage  plants  are  cut  and  bd 
green  they  are  call«'<l  soiling  plants.  There 
are  several  species  of  plants,  as,  for  instance, 
the    prickly    comfrey,    whiclu    if   fed    irreen.   inny 


192  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

be   used  for  soiling,    but,   if   dried,   are    unpala- 
table. 

332.  The  production  of  forage  and  soiling 
crops  is  extremely  simple.  They  may  be  inter- 
tilled or  not.  Large  plants,  which  require  abun- 
dant food  and  moisture  and  a  full  supply  of 
sunlight,  as  maize,  should  be  tilled ;  but  small 
and  quickly  maturing  ones,  as  barley,  may  be 
raised  without  inter -tillage. 

333.  The  two  great  forage  plants  of  the 
United  States  are  maize  and  alfalfa.  The  latter 
is  well  suited  to  the  semi -arid  districts  of  the 
West,  and  thrives  to  an  astonishing  degree  in  the 
bright  sunshine  of  the  Plains,  when  supplied 
with  moisture  by  irrigation.  It  is  perennial,  and 
several  cuttings  may  be  taken  each  season.  It  is 
one  of  the  leguminous  crops,  and,  therefore, 
appropriates  nitrogen  of  the  air.  Like  clover,  it 
has  a  deep  root- system. 

334.  But  the  king  of  all  grasses,  the  one  most 
useful,  most  easily  raised  and  harvested,  and  the 
most  productive,  is  Indian  corn,  or  maize.  In  a 
little  more  than  one  hundred  days  from  planting, 
from  four  to  six  tons  of  air-dried  stalks  and  from 
forty  to  fifty  bushels  of  grain  may  be  secured 
from  each  acre  ;  or  from  twelve  to  twenty  tons  of 
uncured  material  may  be  secured  for  the  silo. 

335.  Rye,  though  not  a  first-class  forage  or 
soiling  plant,  may  be  sown  in  the  fall,  cut  when 


PASTL'KES,    Ml.AUmVS.    AND     KOUAUK  1W3 

in  hoa<l,  and  t"oll()w<><l  Ity  a  crop  <>t'  Ilunj^ariun 
irrass,  whioli  thrives  in  hot  weathor;  and  this  in 
I  urn  may  ho  follcved  l;y  oats  and  peas.  There 
will  not  h«»  time  in  the  North  for  th«'  oats  an<i 
peas  to  mature,  hut  llifV  will  r«Mnain  i^rccn 
throutrh  Noveml>er,  and  may  furnish  lat«'  fall 
pastur*',  or  may  be  left  on  tlie  ground  to  serve  as 
u  winter  cover- crop  (115). 

suGGtsTjoys  o.y  cnAi'/f./x  xii 

304a.  It  is  impracticable  to  treat  of  specifio  crops  in  ■ 
text-book.  Grass  ami  forage  art'  ho  fiituinnicntnl  to  the  con- 
ception of  u)^ricultnre,  however,  that  it  will  be  profitable  to 
discuss  theni,  particnlarly  as  the  cultivation  of  them  illustrates 
some  of  the  underlying  principles  of  cropping.  For  advicit  as 
to  the  iiandling  of  particular  crops,  the  enquirer  must  go  to 
iKtoks  on  the  special  topics. 

304b.  The  true  grosses  constitute  the  natural  family  of 
plants  known  to  botanists  as  the  Graminem  or  grass  family  ; 
and  this  family  includes  all  the  vereal  grains,  as  wheat,  maize, 
ond  rice.  In  its  largest  sense,  therefore,  the  word  gross  in 
eludes  many  plants  which  are  not  commonly  recognized  a-* 
grasses. 

304r.  The  term  grass  is  popularly  used  to  designate  the 
medium  sized  and  smaller  members  of  the  grass  family,  such 
as  orchani- grass,  timothy,  ami  blue-grass,  and  not  the  larger 
grasses,  as  oats,  sugar-cane,  and  bamboo. 

30t<f.  The  clovem  are  sometimes  erroneously  called  grussea  ; 
and  "a  field  of  grass"  may  contain  many  kinds  of  plants.  Therr 
are  many  kinds  of  clover.  The  common  red  clover  is  Tn/oUum 
pratense :  the  me<ii'>m  red  is  T.  meitium  ;  the  alsike  is  T.  hybrt- 
dunt,  with  rose-tinted  flowers;  the  white  or  creeping  <•' 
or  shamrock,  is   /*.  repens ;    the  crimson,  used  for  covvr-cr>  , 

M 


194 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


T.  incarnatum.  With  the  exception  of  Trifolium  repens,  these  are 
introduced  from  the  Old  World.  The  Japan  clover,  now  much 
prized  in  the  South,  is  really  not  a  clover,  but  belongs  to  a 
closely   related   genus.      It   is   known   to   botanists   as  Lespedeza 


Fig.  74.    A  carex,  or  sedge. 


Fig.  75.    A  common  sedge,  or  earex,  in 
flower  and  when  ripe. 


striata.      It    was    introduced    accidentally    into     South    Carolina 
about  1849. 

304e.  There  are  many  kinds  of  grass-like  plants.  The 
greater  part  of  these,  at  least  in  the  North,  belong  to  the 
closely  related  Sedge  family.  Sedges  are  easily  distiuguisned 
by  3-ranked  leaves  and  usually  by  3 -angled  stems,  with  a 
pith  ;    and    the   flowers   are   very  unlike    grasses.      The    sedges 


PASTl'HES.     MKADOWS.     AND     FORAGE 


in:. 


aro  pfiuTnlly  worthless  ns  forngo  plants,  althoiii^h  aotno  spfciti 
in  tin-  West  and  South  nfTord  acceptable  cattle  ran(*f'H  wlu-n 
grass  is  not  to  be  had.  Figs.  74  and  T.'i  show 
common  types  of  eedgeu,  such  as  aro  frequent  in 
swales. 

305(1.  In  specialty-funning  (4n),  nbundanro  of 
plant-food  and  hunuis  material  can  be  addi-d  to 
the  soil,  and  rotations  may  not  bo  needed  ;  but 
in  genend  or  nii.xed  husbandry  some  kind  of  rota- 
tion is  essential.  Read  Chapter  .xv.,  "Fertility  of 
the  Laiul." 

30.')/*.  The  kind  of  rotation  must  bo  determined 
by  the  soil  and  many  other  factors.  A  four-year 
rotation,  in    which  an    exacting  crop  follows    :\    !■  -- 


Fl^  TS     Juno  (mx  or  blue  crmaa 


%lll^^ 


l./\. 


Fig.  78.    Orchard  grass  (Z)ac<j/K 
(flomerata)  x3^. 


Fig.  79.    TciD-root  of 
red  clover.    (Compare  Fig.  33.) 


PASTl'RKS.     MKADOWS.     AND     KoKv.K  197 

<*.xnrting    one,    aud    in    which    the    ■•!ov.r     root-bortr    in    Knpt    in 
check,  is  — 

Clover,  one  year  : 

Malu.  wttb  or  without  n]nnun> 

Oats  : 

Wheat,  with  phosphates  niitl  niannrv* 

A    i;.»)«i    rotation    for  "fairly  fertil»>,    lii;htish    mndH,"'   i»  — 

Clovrr,  one  year  : 

Potatoes: 

Wheat. 

A   rotation  for  wetMl-inffsttnl   idiid  is  — 

Sod  . 
Mai;< 

Ptitntiw*  <>r  Miiin'  iitiuT    intertilled  crop  ; 
Oats  or  liarley. 

307a.    A  pi'rnmiuMit  pasturu  is  oiu-  which    ia  to  remain  many 
years  without  plowing.     Some  pastureH,   particularly  on    rorky  or 
rullitig    land,    remain    undisturbed    for    n    penerntion    ami    more 
Bermuda  grass  and  Japan   clover    make 
permanent  pastures  in  many  parts  of  the  i\ 

South,  but  most  gra.sses  do  not  mak<-  j.'uod 
■od   there.       In   distiiu-tiun  to  perniaiDiit  | 

pastures  are  the  tem|)orary  pastures  whieh  ! 

are  a  part  of   a  rotation,   or  the  meadow  >, 

which  is   pa.sturetl   after  the  liay  is  cut 

3Iln.    The  familiar  Timothy  is  show  I  '^ 

11  Figs.  70  and  80.  June-gra.ss,  with 
u  flower  In  detail,  is  seen  in  Fig.  77. 
June-grass  is  a  common  grass  along  road 
?-ides,  ripening  %'ery  early,  and  is  the  beHi 
irrass  for  lawns.  Orchard -grass  is  illiix- 
rated    by    Fig.  78. 

nr.'-i      The  wonl    host    is   here   n«»«'«?-^r  t 

•han   by  the  b"" 
'2b).      Here  it  in 
a  helpvr  or  companion,  not  a  plant  u|»on  ns.m.    8haJl«w  i^t  ti.ten. 
which  another  p'-'t  .r    >"  !n«"^t   j.r.y-  of  timothy 


-"  B 

i,   A 

f^i'^s 

s  ^ 

~^s. 

<^    B 

-s  .-'.^ 


PASTLKE6,    MHADUNVi^,    AM>     1  nKAi.l. 


199 


313<i.  Observe  how  different  the  rocds  ot  cinv.r  nmi  timothy 
are  (Fips.  "D,  80).  One  fooils  in  tlio  suliHoil  ntul  Hulisurfiicc 
soil,  Las  iiiaiiy  little  orjjanisnis  on  its  rootU't»,  which  nn*  oulii-d 
nit ro^;t>u- fixers  (138);  that  is,  they  take  tiio  free  iiitrnf^en  of 
the  Boil  air,  and  it  then  becomes  of  use  to  the  plant. 
The  timothy  has  many  Binall  tibrous  roots,  which  remain  near 
the  surface,  and    have  no  nitropen-fixinff  orpnnisms.     It  will   be 


T\k.  KJ.     AUaita  or  li><>«nie  {Mfdicago 
iaiitat  x%. 


FIk.  83.     A  good  bottle  for 
»et>4l«. 


Moen  how  appmpriato  it  is  to  raise  these  plants  together  :  one 
frills  near  the  surface,  the  other  down  de«  p  in  the  soil;  ono 
is   lon}(  IIvihI,  the  other  short   lived. 

31.s<i.  In  general  farming,  the  most  uniformly  gcH)d  cropi 
are  Hourly  alwiiys  obtained  when  ii  rotation  is  u.ned.  Fig.  81 
is  n  fielil  of  wheat,  in  n  rotation,  which  yielded  owr  30  busbeU 
to  the  acre. 

323d.     The  permanent  meadows  teach  many  valuable   : 

if  they  are  studied  closely.     Hero  is  often  found  a  marked  

tration  of  the  struggle  for  existence  and  of  the  survival  of  the 
fitf'^t.      Here    the    farmer   can    :-  •  -    '  •■>,     v,,|p    by  tillage,   and 


200  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

small  opportunity  is  afforded  him  to  destroy  the  less  desirable 
plants,  that  the  more  desirable  ones  may  have  better  conditions. 

333a.  A  sprig  of  alfalfa  is  shown  in  Fig.  82.  It  has  small 
blue  flowers  in  little  clusters,  and  leaves  of  three  leaflets.  It  is 
grown  somewhat  in  the  East,  but  it  is  most  useful  in  the  dry 
regions  of  the  Plains  and  westward. 

335a.  All  the  plants  mentioned  in  this  chapter  should  be 
known  to  the  pupil.  In  some  schools,  herbarium  specimens 
m^y  be  made  of  them.  It  is  interesting  and  useful  to  collect 
seeds  of  farm  and  garden  plants.  The  school  house  may  very 
profitably  contain  a  cabinet  of  seeds.  Useful  bottles  are  the 
"specimen  tubes"  sold  by  wholesale  druggists  and  natural -history 
stores.  One  is  shown  in  Fig.  83.  It  is  %  inch  in  diametf^r  and 
3  inches  high,  and  can  be  bought,  without  the  corks,  for  about 
30  cents  per  dozen. 

For  references  on  grasses  and  forage  plants,  consult  Vol.  II, 
Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture;  Hunt's  "Forage  and  Fiber 
Crops  in  America;"  Voorhees'  "Forage  Crops;"  Spillman's  "  Farm 
Grasses  of  the  United  States."  For  the  cereals,  see  Hunt's 
"Cereals  in  America." 


Paht   ITT 

thp:  animal,  and  stock 

CuAi'TKi;    Nil  I 

TIIK    v»FFU'i:s    OF    'llli:    ANIMAL 

L     llii     AntDKil.     tiHil     tlir     Stutk 

'.V.\i\.  1m  ail  a*^ri(Miltural  sriise,  \\w  animal,  as 
a  rt'iMt'srutative  of  tlie  animal  kini^tlom,  has  six 
i^on»M"aI  ty|u's  of  uses  or  of!i<M's  :  it  aitls  in  main- 
taininir  tlif  ftTtiiity  of  tli»'  land  ;  it  iti-(>vi«l«'s  a 
mt'ans  of  disjtosin^  of  (•ro|>s  ;  it,  or  its  prodiu'ts, 
may  Lo  of  intrinsic  valiu'  in  supplying  foo*!  and 
••lothin^r  ;  it  works,  or  is  a  "luwist  of  Lurdrn"; 
it  may  aid  in  k»'rj>in«r  th<»  farm  <'l«'an  of  w»mmIs 
and  jM'vts  ;  it  div«Msili«'s  agricultural  occupations; 
it  alTords  cm|t|oymcnt  for  lalxir  durinjr  th»» 
inclomcnt   months. 

3;J7.  When  animals  arc  raised  in  quantity, 
they  are  spoken  of  as  stock.  This  stock  may  !)•' 
cattle,  turkeys,  sheep,  ducks,  swine,  tish,  or 
horses  ;  hut  in  common  spee<'h  the  word  is  ap- 
plied mostly  to  quadrupeds  (7). 


202  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

2.    The  Animal   in  Its  Relation   to   the    Soil 

338.  The  first  great  resource  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  texture  and  richness  of  the  soil  is 
herbage  (108-111) ;  the  second  is  farm  manures. 
When  stock  is  pastured,  practically  all  the  ma- 
nure is  returned  to  the  farm  ;  but  when  it  is 
housed,  much  of  the  manure  is  commonly  lost 
through  the  carelessness  of  the  farmer  (120, 
120a) . 

339.  The  greater  the  proportion  of  stock  to 
crop,  the  more  fertile  the  farm  should  be  ;  for  if 
the  farmer  must  buy  feed,  the  manure  is  gain, 
so  far  as  the  farm  is  concerned.  In  general 
mixed  husbandry,  stock  is  necessary  in  order  to 
maintain  fertility,  as  well  as  for  its  direct  value  ; 
but  in  intensive  (Ilia)  and  specialty- farming 
(4a)  manures  may  be  bought. 

3.   The  Animal  in  Its  Relation  to  the  Crop 

340.  There  is  not  sufficient  market  for  all  the 
crops  which  the  land  can  raise.  Therefore,  some 
of  the  crop  may  be  fed  to  the  animal  and  sold 
as  meat,  or  butter,  or  eggs. 

341.  There  is  an  important  secondary  gain  in 
this  feeding-out  of  the  crop,  for  part  of  the  crop 
is  returned  to  the  land  in  the  manure.      Some 


THE     OFFICFS     OF     THK     ANIMAL  20;i 

crops,  as  clovor,  carry  away  nnicli  mure  plaiit- 
fonil,  it'  tlioy  are  sold  otf  tlio  farm,  tlian  tlie 
animal  products  which,  in  larsj^e  part,  are  elabo- 
rated from  them. 

4.    lliv  Annual  /Lis  Intrinsic    Valiw  to  Mau 
4(1.   As  urtirlts  of  food 

.■)4'J.  Animals  are  dinM-t  sources  of  food. 
They  contribute  the  various  kinds  of  llrsli.  a> 
beef,  pork,  poultry,  fish. 

343.  Aiiinuds  are  indirect  sources  of  foo«l, 
coutributinir  of  their  products,  as  ej^j^,   milk. 

344.  Animals  also  contributt*  materials  to 
various  manufactured  food  products,  a.s  cheese, 
condeused  milk,  butter. 

ib.   As  articles  usetl  in   tin-  arts 

345.  Animals  contribute  materials  f«)r  cloth- 
ing. Amon;:>t  such  products  are  leather  and 
wool.  They  also  afford  nuit«'rial  for  many 
articles  of  personal  use.  as  featiiers.  bone.  hair, 
glue,  horn. 

34(5.  Aninuils  contrilnit4^  largely  to  fertilizing 
materials,  particularly  to  substances  containing 
nitroi^ou  and  phosphoric  acid.  Amongst  sucli 
materials,  the  most  important  are  bones,  dried 
bloofl,    tankage  ;     of    secondary    importance   are 


204  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

hair- waste,    wool- waste,    fish-scrap,    hoof -meal, 
various  forms  of  horn. 

4c    As  companions 

347.  Many  animals  are  pets,  or  companions  to 
man,  and  the  rearing  of  them  is  a  species  of 
agriculture.  Of  such  are  dogs,  cats,  rabbits, 
tame  birds,  and  others. 


5.   The  Animal  as  a  Beast  of  Burden 

348.  The  animal  aids  in  tilling  the  soil.  How- 
ever much  steam  may  be  utilized  for  propellimz" 
implements  of  tillage,  the  horse  and  the  ox  will 
still  be  indispensable  to  agriculture.  Even  the 
tramping  of  the  animals  over  loose  soils  tends  to 
compact  and  improve  the  land  (250&). 

349.  The  animal  supplies  means  of  transpor- 
tation. Even  with  the  advent  of  the  electric  car, 
the  bicycle  and  the  horseless  carriage,  the  driv- 
ing horse  will  remain  an  important  part  of  the 
farm  equipment. 

350.  The  animal  also  supplies  power  for  the 
dri%4ng  of  farm  machinery,  as  threshing  and 
feed-cutting  machinery.  On  large  farms,  steam 
power  must  come  to  be  more  and  more  important, 
but  on  the  smaller  ones  animal  power  will  long 
remain  an  indispensable  factor. 


THE     OKKICKR     OK     THK     ANIMAL  205 

6.  The  Atnmal  (^s  <i  I'rst-drstrnifpr 

351.  The  browsing  of  animals  aids  in  ktM'j>iii;_' 
wtM'ds  and  wild  ^rowtlis  in  clicck.  It  is  \v»'ll- 
known  that  ))astnrin,ir  with  slit'cp  is  on«»  of  th»* 
ht^st   nit'ans  ot"  <'i«'anin,tr  a   weedy  aica. 

.").')•_'.  Animals  may  kt't'j»  insect  and  fnn^'ons 
posts  in  ciifck  hy  oatinir  the  fallen  frnit  or 
foliaire.  It  is  well  known  that  swine  keeji  the 
apjtle-wr»rm  in  eheck  hy  eatinir  the  windfall 
aj>j»les.  Swine  als(»  ro(»t  «»nt  and  eat  the  wliite 
prnh  and  other  insects. 

7.  Th(    Aniniitl   Diifrsifirs   Lnhnr 

35').  The  animal  itself  intinxluces  diversity 
into  farming.  It  also  <lemands  the  growing  of 
diverse  crops.  It  enforces  rotations  of  crops. 
f)iverse  interests  edn«'ate  the  farmer,  hy  demand- 
ing attention  to  many  prohlems. 

3r)4.  Some  of  the  lahor  which  is  employed  in 
summer  in  the  growing  of  crops  may  he  em- 
ploye<l  in  wint^M"  in  earing  for  stock.  The 
animal,  therefore,  introduces  continuousness  into 
farminc:.  The  he^  lal>orers  demuud  employment 
the  ye.ar  round. 


206  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


SUGGESTIONS    ON    CHAPTER    XIII 

338a.  It  is  remarkable  how  the  value  of  manure  increases 
with  the  age  of  the  country  and  the  intensity  of  the  agriculture. 
This  comes  as  a  result  of  experience,  wholly  without  the  teachings 
of  science,  although  science  explains  why  manure  is  valuable, 
and  points  out  many  of  the  limitations  of  its  use.  The  pros- 
perity of  the  German  peasant  is  measured  by  the  size  of  -his 
manure-pile.  Gai'deners  place  the  greatest  dependence  upon 
manure  ;  but  they  want  it  well  rotted, — which  means  that  they 
not  only  want  its  plant-food  in  the  most  available  condition,  but 
that  they  desire  to  utilize  it  largely  for  its  mechanical  effect  in 
loosening  the  soil  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

341  rt.  A  ton  of  clover  hay  removes  about  forty  pounds  of 
nitrogen,  ten  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  forty  pounds  of 
potash.  A  ton  of  butter  removes  about  two  and  one-half  pounds 
of  nitrogen,  and  less  than  one  pound  each  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash. 

346rt.  "Tankage  is  a  highly  nitrogenous  product,  and  con- 
sists chiefly  of  the  dried  animal  wastes  from  the  large  abattoirs 
and  slaughtering  establishments.  It  is  variable  in  its  composition, 
since  it  includes  the  otherwise  unusable  parts  of  the  carcass,  as 
bone,  tendons,  flesh,  hair,  etc.  The  portions  of  this  from  the 
different  animals  not  only  vary  in  their  composition,  but  they  are 
used  in  varying  proportions,  which  naturally  results  in  an  ex- 
tremely variable  product.  What  is  known  as  'concentrated 
tankage,'  which  is  obtained  by  evaporating  the  fluids  which  con- 
tain certain  extractive  animal  matter,  is  the  richest  in  nitrogen, 
and  is  more  uniform  in  character  than  the  others  ;  and  because  of 
its  fineness  of  division  and  physical  character,  the  nitrogen  con- 
tained in  it  is  also  more  active  than  in  the  other  forms." — Voor- 
hees,   Fertilizers,  43. 

M6b.  Many  other  animal  substances  are  used  for  fertilizers. 
Those  which  are  used  for  their  nitrogen  are  dried  blood,  dried 
meat,  dried  and  ground  fish,  sea  crabs,  hoof  meal.  Those  which 
are  used  for  phosphates  are  the  various  forms  and  preparations  of 


THE     OFKICK;?     UF     THi:     ANIMAL  2i)'i 

"t>on«>,   tis   rnw,   boiloii,   stvaiuod  boue,  bone   ash  and   bone-black  ; 
also,  ilrit'd  fish. 

;{,')l(i.  With  all  the  remarks  which  have  now  been  made  on 
weeds  {'2'2b,  101,  101a,  117,  267,  l2G7a,2C8),  the  j.upil  will  see  that 
the  only  fundamental  and  permanent  way  to  escape  weeds  is 
through  bettor  larni  manaj^ement  ;  and,  to  a  less  extent,  the  same 
ooneluMJon  will  apply  to  insect  and  funpons  pests.  "I  went  by  the 
field  of  the  slothful,  and  by  tho  vineyard  of  the  man  voi«l  of 
umlerstandinp  ;  and  lo,  it  was  nil  provvn  over  with  thorns,  and 
nettles  had  covered  tho  face  thereof,  and  the  stouo  wall  thereof 
wu-s  liroken  down." — Proverbs  xiiv.,  SO,  SI. 

;i.">4*i.  Upon  the  desirability  of  continuous  employment  for 
farm  labor,  Roberts  speaks  us  follows  when  writing  of  rotations  : 
"The  baleful  results  of  raising  a  single  or  few  produfts  in  ex- 
tended districts  mny  be  seen  iu  California  and  tho  great  wheat 
districts  of  the  Northwest.  In  such  localities,  there  is  little  or  no 
true  home  life,  with  its  duties  and  restraints  ;  nu-n  and  boys  are 
herded  together  like  cattle,  sleep  where  they  may,  unci  subsist  as 
best  they  can.  Tho  work  is  hartl,  and  from  sun  to  sun  for  two  or 
thne  months,  when  it  abruptly  ceases,  and  the  workmen  are  left 
to  find  employniint  as  best  they  may,  or  adopt  the  life  and  habits 
of  tho  pmfe8si«)nul  trump.  It  is  difficult  to  name  anything  more 
demoralizing  to  men,  and  especially  to  boys,  than  this  inter- 
mittent labor  ;  and  the  higher  the  wages  paid  and  the  shorter  tho 
period  of  service,  tho  more  demoralizing  the  effect.  If  there 
were  no  other  reason  for  practicing  a  rotation  with  a  variety  of 
plants,  tho  welfare  of  the  workman  and  his  family  should  form  a 
sutlii-ient  one  "  — Frr/i/i7y  of  thr  ImiuI,  SG'J. 

For  references  on   live-stock,  consult   Vol.   Ill,  Cyclopetlia  of 
Aroericjin  Agriculture;    Hotierts'    "Tln'    Horse;"    IMumb's   "TvpiK 
nn-l   llr»e.ls  of  F'nrju   AnimalH;"   Mayo's  'Tare  of  ,\r.inia;- 
•'»»>■  of  Animals). 


Chapter  XIV 
HOW  TSE  ANIMAL   LIVES 

JAMES  LAW 

1.   The  Cell,  and  Its  Part   in  the  Vital 

Processes 
la.   The  cell 

355.  The  element  in  the  body  that  carries  on 
vital  processes  is  the  cell ;  for  life  in  the  animal, 
like  life  in  the  plant  (Chap,  viii.),  is  dependent 
on  the  existence  of  cells.  Each  animal  cell  is 
a  soft,  jelly-like  substance,  held  together  by 
an  exceedingly  delicate  network  of  fibers.  It 
might  be  compared  to  a  microscopic  particle  of 
raw  white  of   egg. 

lb.  Single -celled  animals 

356.  The  lowest  animals  in  the  scale  of 
existence  are  formed  of  a  single  cell,  which  in 
itself  performs  all  the  functions  of  life.  This 
cell  can  move  from  place  to  place,  by  flowing 
out  from  its  original  globular  form,  so  as  to 
make  a  projecting  arm,  and  by  continuing  to 
flow  in  the  same  direction  until  its  whole 
substance   his    passed   into  the  new  position. 

'208) 


UOW     TUE     ANIMAL     LIVE3  2Uy 

357.  This  cell  eiiii  tlow  out  so  as  to  surround 
microsfopic  particles  ami  diaw  thfiii  into  its«>ir  ; 
these  it  cau  digest  and  us«»  to  incn>ase  its  own 
substance.  By  reversing  this  ]»rocess,  it  <'an 
throw  out  indigestil)!*'  an<l  wast*'  niat«'rials.  It 
can  al>sorb,  digest  and  build  into  its  own  suIj- 
stanee  nutritive  matters  already  dissolvrtl  in 
wat»>r;  and  it  can  drive  out  waste,  worn  out  and 
injurious  matters  which  it  holds  in  solution  in  its 
own  liijuid. 

'.]7}>^.  When  the  cell  grows  too  large,  it  can 
divide  into  two  iiidependent  j)arts,  eacli  havimr 
all  the  vital  powers  which  belonged  to  the  jtarent 
cell    or    globule. 

3.VJ.  Thus  the  single-celled  animal  can  mak.- 
of  any  pai't  of  its  body  limbs  t'<>r  moving,  hand^ 
for  grasping,  fingers  for  feeling,  stomach  for 
digesting,  channels  for  the  cinuilatiou  of  its 
nutritive  liquids,  as  well  as  organs  for  excretion 
and  for  the  increase  of  its  kind. 


Ic.    M<lt\[i  -rrUul   iitiitmils 

.300.  In  all  the  higher  animals  there  is  not  one 
cell,  but  myriads  ;  and  these  cells  are  no  less 
essential  to  life  and  to  the  healthy  performance 
of  all  vital  functions  than  is  the  single  cell  of 
the  lowliest  organism.  In  the  <'(»mpl»»x  animal 
body,  however,   the    cells    build    up  solid    tissues 


210  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGKICXJLTURE 

outside  themselves.  As  each  cell  becomes  im- 
prisoned in  a  minute  cavity  in  such  solid 
structure,  it  is  robbed  of  those  common  powers 
or  functions  which  belong  to  the  single -celled 
animal,  and  is  specialized  for  the  performance 
of  one  constant,  unchanging  round  of  work. 
Each    cell    has  its  own  work  to   do. 

361.  Cells  may  carry  on  processes  of  nutri- 
tion. Some  cells  lie  in  the  microscopic  spaces 
left  in  the  hard  bone,  and  conduct  the  nutrition 
and  changes  in  its  substance.  Other  cells  lie 
in  the  substance  of  muscle  or  sinew,  or  of 
brain,  or  of  some  other  tissue,  and  no  one 
of  these  can  construct  bone  nor  any  other 
structure  than  that  in  which  it  lies.  All  such 
cells  are  engaged  in  carrying  on  the  nutrition 
and  growth  of  their  respective  tissues,  and 
are  reserved  for  this  work  only. 

362.  Cells  may  carry  on  nervous  processes, 
being  set  apart  for  vital  work  of  a  kind  not 
directly  connected  with  nutrition.  Nerve  cells, — 
found  in  the  brain,  spinal-marrow,  and  some 
other  parts, — receive  impressions  brought  over 
the  nerve  cords  from  distant  parts  of  the  body. 
They  generate  and  send  out  nerve  force  to 
other  parts.  Some  of  these  cells  are  set  in  mo- 
tion by  mental   acts. 

363.  Certain  other  cells,  which  line  microsco- 
pic sacs  in  organs  known  as  glands,  select  from 


HOW     TIIK     ANIMAL     I.IVP'.S  'J  1  1 

♦bo  blood  the  socrotion  ^vhic'h  that  ;^hiii(i  is  uj»- 
pomted  to  furnish,  and  pour  it  out  through  tho 
gland  ducts.  Tho  secretion  from  one  j^hin<l  is 
nutritious,  as  in  the  c'as«»  of  milk  ;  that  from 
another  is  digestive,  as  in  the  s«M*n'tion  of  th«» 
stomach;  and  from  a  tliinl  it  is  wasto  matter,  like 
sweat.  The  selection  from  th«>  nutritive  liquid  of 
the  l)lood  is  the  work  of  the  individual  rdls,  an<l 
is  always  the  same  for  each  kind  of  gland. 

364.  The  cells  of  some  glands  construct  a  n»'w 
substant'c,  which  is  not  secreted  hut  jiouhmI  hack 
into  the  blood.  Thus  the  liver  makes  glycogen, 
which  passes  into  grape  sugar,  and  serves  for 
the  production  of  heat,  nniscular  work  and  nu- 
trition. 

3(3.j.  Some  cells  on  the  walls  of  the  intestines 
absorb  nutritive  and  other  matters  from  the 
liquid  contents  of  the  bowels  and  pass  them  on 
into  tho  circulating  (blood  and  lymph)  vessels. 

300.  Besides  these  cells  which  become  im- 
prisoned in  their  particulai'  tissues,  and  the  work 
of  which  is  restricted  to  tho  conducting  of  the 
growth  or  other  functions  of  such  tissues,  there 
is  a  large  class  which  floats  free  in  the  liquids 
of  the  body.  The  rod  ami  white  IjIimkI  glo)»- 
ules  and  lymph  cells  are  examples.  These 
globules  or  corpuscles  circulate  in  all  parts  of 
the  body,  thus  suggesting  the  freedom  of  the 
one -celled    animal.      Hut    limitations    have    l^^en 


212  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

set  even  to  these,  the  red  globules  being 
mainly  carriers  of  oxygen,  while  the  white  also 
have  restricted   functions. 


2.   The  Food  of  Animals 
2a .  Kind  of  food 

367.  Food  may  be  either  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal. Many  animals,  as  horses,  cattle  and 
sheep,  live  on  vegetables,  or  are  herbivorous  ; 
while  others,  like  foxes  and  wolves,  eat  animal 
food  only,  or  are  carnivorous.  The  food  of 
the  herbivorous  animal  has  its  nutritive  prin- 
ciples in  a  less  concentrated  condition,  and  the 
herbivora  are  accordingly  supplied  with  more 
capacious  digestive  organs.  The  same  holds 
true  of  grain -feeders  and  grass -feeders  among 
the  herbivora.  The  grain -fed  horse  has  much 
smaller  stomach  and  intestines  than  the  grass- 
fed  ox,  and  the  well-fed  domestic  rabbit  has  a 
much  more  spacious  alimentary  canal  than  his 
wild    ancestor. 

368.  Artificial  selection  and  forcing  of  meat- 
producing  animals  has  a  similar  effect.  The 
scrub  ox,  Texas  steer  and  buffalo  have  light  ab- 
dominal contents,  while  the  pampered  short-horn, 
Hereford,  or  black-polled  ox  has  them  heavy 
and  bulky.     In  the  carnivora  they  are  still  more 


HOW     Tin:     ANIMAL     LIVES  213 

restricted.  The  intestine  ot"  tlio  ox  is  about  Itio 
feet  longr,  tliat  of  tlic  hoi-se  90  feet,  aud  tliut 
of   the  dog   only   111  to   14    feet, 

'2b.    Food  constifunits 

.')(j!>.  All  foods  must  contain  clu'iuical  ('<iii- 
stitu«'nts  which  will  serve  to  repair  the  waste  of 
the  body,  to  develoj)  growing  tissue,  aud  to  suj)- 
ply  materials  for  the  ditlcrcnt  secretions. 

370.  Aside  from  mineral  matters,  all  food 
constituents  which  can  build  uj)  the  tissues  nuist 
contain  nitrogen,  the  element  which  forms  four- 
lifths  of  the  atmosphere,  an<l  which  is  an  e>>iii- 
tial  part  of  all  body  tissues.  As  familiar  ex- 
amples of  su»'li  nitrogenous  foo<ls  or  aliments 
may  be  named  white  of  ofxg  (albumin),  milk 
curd  (casein),  aud  one  of  the  soluble  parts  of 
flour  (gluten). 

371.  As  common  fornis  of  foods  that  contaip 
no  nitrogen,  and  which  cannot  form  tissues,  art. 
starch,  sugar  and  fats.  These  are  used  up  or 
l>urne<l  in  the  syst«Mn  to  j)ro<iuce  bo<ly  lieat,  to 
stinudate  the  contraction  of  musides,  and  to  fur- 
nish secretions  which  are  free  from  nitrogen, 
such  as  sugar  and  butter-fat  in  milk,  and  sugar 
(more  propeily  glycogen  or  sugar-forrnei)  in  the 
liver. 

37'J.  Both  sugar  and  fat,  however,  can  be 
formed    in   the    body  from    nitrogenous    foo<l,  as 


214  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  milk  of  the  carnivorous  animal  when  red 
flesh  only  has  been  fed.  In  this  case  the  origi- 
nal nitrogenous  food  is  broken  up  into  two  or 
more  chemical  products,  one  of  which  contains 
only  carbon  and  hydrogen,  or  these  with  the 
addition  of  oxygen,  while  all  of  the  nitrogen 
goes  to  other  product  or   products. 

373.  Mineral  salts  {lS2a)  form  a  third  gi'oup 
of  food  principles.  These  are  essential  in  repair- 
ing the  waste  of  tissues,  and  in  forming  secre- 
tions like  milk,  bile  and  gastric  juice. 

374.  The  ideal  food  contains  all  of  these 
three  groups  in  forms  which  can  be  dissolved, 
digested  and  assimilated  into  the  animal  tissues. 
Milk  is  an  ideal  food.  In  it  the  non- nitroge- 
nous aliments — sugar,  butter -fat — are  united  with 
the  nitrogenous — casein,  albumin, — and  with  the 
salts  in  proportions  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
system. 

375.  A  well-balanced  ration  for  the  adult 
animal  is  one  in  which  these  different  classes  of 
food  constituents  bear  a  somewhat  definite  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  due  allowance  being  made  for 
the  uses  to  which  the  animal  is  put.  The  grow- 
ing, working  or  milking  animal  requires  more  of 
the  nitrogenous  elements,  while  the  fattening  ani- 
mal may  exchange  much  of  this  for  the  non- 
nitrogenous. 

376.  The  living  body,  however,  is  not  like  a 


HOW     THE     AM  MAI,     LIVKS  Jl.> 

simple  machine,  which  can,  in  all  cases,  turn  out 
a  product  exactly  corresponding  to  the  chemical 
food  elements  which  are  turned  into  it.  The 
vital  el»Mnent  has  always  to  be  reckoned  with. 
One  animal  demands  a  little  more  of  this  class  of 
aliment,  and  another  a  little  more  of  that,  in 
order  to  secure  the  best  results;  while  in  all  cases 
palatal)ility  and  facility  of  dii,'cstioii  have  a 
controlling  inlluence. 

3.    Difjrsfinn    of   Food 
3a.    Whni  digestion   is 

377.  Digestion  is  the  process  by  means  of 
which  the  food  becomes  diss(^lve«l  so  as  to  bo 
taken  up  by  the  blood.  It  takes  place  in  the 
alimentary  canal, — the  mouth,  stomach,  and 
intestines. 

378.  Digestion  takes  place  un<lcr  tin'  action 
of  ditTerent  secretions,  each  of  which  operates 
on  special  constituents  of  the  food,  ('.msidered 
ill  the  order  in  which  they  mingle  with  the 
food,  these  digestive  secn'tions  are:  (a)  saliva; 
(b)  gastric  juice;  (c)  bile,  (d)  pancreatic  juice, 
(e)  intestinal  juice. 

36.    The  saliva 

370.  Saliva  is  furnished  by  a  group  of  glands 
located    under    the    tongue,    in    the    cheeks,    and 


216  THE     PRENTIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

under  the  ears.  They  discharge  their  secretions 
into  the  mouth.  In  grain- eating  birds,  similar 
glands  surround  the  crop,— an  enlargement  of 
the  gullet  in  the  region  of  the  neck. 

380.  A  ferment  (ptyalin)  in  the  saliva  acts 
on  the  starch  in  the  food,  causing  it  to  chemi- 
cally unite  with  additional  water  and  become 
transformed  into  sugar.  Eaw  starch  is  insoluble 
in  water,  and  cannot  pass  into  the  circulation ; 
but  the  sugar  formed  from  it  is  freely  soluble, 
can  be  readily  absorbed  into  the  blood,  and 
contributes  to  the  activity,  growth  and  nourish- 
ment of  the  body. 

381.  The  ptyalin  acts  slowly  on  raw  starch, 
and  much  more  rapidly  on  boiled  starch,  so  that 
cooking  of  vegetable  food  favors  its  digestion. 
It  acts  best  in  the  absence  of  acids.  It  is 
less  active  when  weak  organic  acids  are  present, 
and  its  action  is  arrested  in  the  stomach  by  the 
free  mm-iatic  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

382.  In  animals  with  one  stomach,  therefore, 
it  is  important  that  the  food  should  be  thor- 
oughly masticated  and  saturated  with  saliva,  and 
not  bolted  whole,  or  imperfectly  insalivated.  In 
ruminants  (or  cud-chewing  animals),  as  cattle, 
sheep  and  goats,  the  food  is  long  delayed  in  the 
drst  three  stomachs,  in  which  any  slight  som*- 
ness  which  may  exist  is  due  to  mild  organic 
acids    only  ;      and,     therefore,     there    is     ample 


HOW     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  217 

time   and    opportunity   for   the    full    digestion   of 
the  starch. 

3S3.  Disjestion  is  further  favore<l  in  tliese 
animals  by  the  cliewinc:  of  the  cud,  hy  means 
of  whicli  the  solid  portions  are  returned  to 
the  mouth,  morsel  by  moi-sel,  to  be  leisurely 
irround  down  and  a^ain  saturateil  with  saliva. 
Digestion  is  more  thoroughly  accomplished  in 
the  third  stomach,  in  which  the  food  is 
ground  to  the  finest  pulp  between  the  one 
hundretl  folds,  largo  and  small,  which  fill  its 
intt'rior. 

;184.  This  thorough  lnvaking  up  or  com- 
minution prepares  the  food  for  the  easy  digestion 
of  its  nitrogenous  principles  in  the  fourth  stoiu- 
aeh.  The  removal  of  the  starch  rendei-s  even 
the  finest  particles  of  food  more  porous,  and 
permits  the  prompt  and  speedy  action  of  the 
stomach  juices  on  its  whole  substance. 

38.').  For  some  time  after  birth,  the  salivary 
glands  pro<bice  little  saliva,  and  still  less  ptj*a- 
lin.  This  is  in  keeping  with  the  exclusive  milk 
di»'t,  in  which  there  is  no  starch  to  be  acted 
upon.  For  this  reason,  any  starchy  food  in  the 
early  days  of  life  is  out  of  place;  for,  as  it 
cannot  Ik»  change<l  into  sugar,  nor  absorlKvl 
until  it  has  pass»Hl  through  the  stomaeh  and 
reached  the  intestine,  it  is  liable  to  femient 
and    to   form   irritant   products,    and   indigestion. 


218  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

The     addition    of     such    elements    to    the    food 
should  be  made  later  and  a  little  at  a  time. 

3c.   The  gastric  juice 

386.  The  stomach  produces  three  digestive 
principles,  which  may  be  separately  considered  : 
muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid,  pepsin,  the  milk- 
curdling  ferment.  These  materials  comprise  the 
gastric    juice. 

387.  Free  muriatic  acid  is  strongly  antiseptic, 
especially  checking  such  fermentations  as  occur 
in  the  alkaline  or  neutral  saliva,  in  the  first  three 
stomachs  of  ruminants  or  in  the  crop  of  the 
bird.  This  exposure  of  the  food  successively  to 
alkaline  saliva  and  acid  gastric  juice  kills  off 
myriads  of  bacterial  ferments  which  would  other- 
wise reach  the  intestine,  to  prove  irritant  or 
poisonous.  Many  still  pass  into  the  intestine  in 
masses  of  undigested  food,  or  because  they  can 
survive  both  alkaline  and  acid  solutions,  or 
because  they  have  passed  into  the  condition  of 
spore,  which,  like  the  dried  seed  of  plants,  is 
comparatively  indestructible. 

388.  The  muriatic  acid  further  softens,  disin- 
tegrates, and  dissolves  the  various  nitrogenous 
food  principles  (coagulated  albumin,  fibrin,  gela- 
tin, casein  and  vegetable  gluten). 

389.  Pepsin  is  a  ferment  which  is  secreted  in 


HOW     TllK     AMMAh     LIVES  219 

glands  found  in  the  end  of  the  stomach  neart'.st 
to  the  intestine.  It  acts  on  tlie  nitrogenous 
principles  in  the  food,  which  are  made  to  tak«» 
up  water,  and  to  changi*  into  a  nuK'h  nmn- 
stahle  and    ditYusible    liciuid    called    a  pcptoiM'. 

.■>I>(),  Peptones  of  a  great  number  of  ditT<»rent 
kinds  are  produced  from  the  varied  food  prin- 
ciples—from such  as  fibrin,  albumin,  glut«»n, 
casein.  The  peptones  all  agroe  in  ccitain  com- 
mon characters:  («)  they  are  easily  and  imhh- 
pl»'t«*ly  soluble  in  water  (fibrin,  coagulalfd  al- 
bumin and  casein  themselves,  are  not  soluble); 
{h)  they  lilter  rapidly  through  animal  mem- 
branes, such  as  a  bladder  (the  agents  from  whiidi 
they  are  derived  do  not);  {<•)  they  are  not 
thrown  down  as  solids  by  boiling  or  by  strong 
acids  (albumin  and  casein  are  precipitated  by 
strong  a<'ids,  and  albumin  by  boiling). 

3*J1.  Peptones  are  thus  easily  al)sorbed  into 
the  blood,  while  the  absorption  of  flio  original 
principles  from  which  they  are  derived  would  be 
exceedingly  slow  and  ditlicult.  Pepsin  acts  nmch 
more  rapidly  in  an  acid  medium,  so  that  it  is 
specially  adapted  to  cooperate  with  the  muriatic 
acid. 

n!)2.  The  milk-curdling  ferment  is  the  product 
of  the  gastric  glands.  It  is  utilized  in  the 
manufacture  of  cheese.  Like  pepsin,  it  acts  best 
in  the  presence  of   mui*iatic   acid.      One  part  of 


220  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

this    ferment    will    coagulate     800,000    parts    of 
casein. 

393.  In  birds  the  gastric  juice  is  secreted  in 
an  enlargement  of  the  gullet  (proventrieulus) 
just  above  the  gizzard.  The  strong  muscles 
aud  cartilaginous  lining  of  the  gizzard  serve, 
with  the  pebbles  swallowed,  to  grind  down  the 
food  into  a  fine  pulp  and  to  mix  it  intimately 
with  the  gastric  juice. 

Sd.  Intestinal  digestion 

394.  Under  the  action  of  the  saliva  and  gas- 
tric juice,  the  greater  part  of  the  starch  aud  ni- 
trogenous matter  is  usually  digested  before  the 
food  materials  pass  from  the  stomach  into  the 
intestines.  The  products  of  digestion  are  mainly 
sugar  and  peptones.  The  fatty  matters, — set  free 
by  the  digestion  of  their  nitrogenous  envelopes,— 
the  undigestible  portions,  and  such  digestible 
matters  as  are  as  yet  not  acted  on,  pass  on  into 
\h^  intestines,  mostly  in  a  finely  divided  semi- 
fluid condition. 

395.  In  the  intestines,  the  materials  are  acted 
on  by  bile,  pancreatic  juice,  and  intestinal  juice. 
These  fluids  are  alkaline. 

39G.  Bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver.  It  is 
poured  into  the  intestines  a  few  inches  beyond  the 
stomach.  It  renders  the  contents  alkaline,  checks 
fermentation,   stimulates   the    movements    of    the 


HOW     TlIK     ANIMAL     LIVES  221 

bowols,  nnd  transforms  their  fatty  contents  into  an 
♦'iiiulsioM  which  penetrates  an  animal  memhrane, 
aiitl  is  al)Sorbecl  witli  great  rapidity. 

.')I>7.  Bile  has,  besides,  a  limited  power  .of 
changing  starch  into  sugar.  It  is  also  nsrful  in 
currying  waste  matters  out  of  the  body. 

398.  Pancreatic  juice  is  poured  into  the  in- 
testines by  a  canal  which  in  certain  animals  unites 
with  the  bile  duct.  It  contains  at  least  four 
dilTereiit  ferments  :  (a)  Amylopsiti,  which,  at 
the  body  temperature,  rapidly  transforms  starch 
and  even  gum  into  sugar,  thus  completing  any 
imperfect  work  of  the  saliva  ;  (h)  trypsin, 
which,  ill  an  alkaline  liquid,  changes  nitroge- 
nous matters  into  jieptones,  thus  finishing  any 
imj)crt"ect  work  of  the  stomach  ;  (r)  a  milk-cur- 
dling ferment. 

31>1).  The  pancreatic  juice,  as  a  whole,  acts 
like  the  bile  in  causing  fats  to  form  emulsions. 
It  even  breaks  up  the  fats  into  fatty  acids  nnd 
glycerin. 

40(1.  Intestinal  juice  is  a  complex  niixtuir  <'i 
the  ditTereut  secretions  already  name<l,  together 
with  the  products  of  the  glands  of  the  intestinal 
walls.  The  secretions  of  tlieso  walls  ai-t  like 
pancreatic  juice,  only  less  powerfully. 

401.  As  a  whole,  the  <ligestivo  agents  tlirown 
into  the  intestines  cover  the  whole  field  of  di- 
gestion, nnd    largely  make   up    for   niiy  defective 


222  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

work  of  the  saliva  and  gastric  juice.  Even  in 
cases  in  which  the  stomach  has  been  removed, 
the  intestines  have  taken  np  its  functions  and 
have  maintained  a   fair  measure  of  health. 


4.  Absorption  of  the  Digested  Matters 

4a.  Row  absorption  taJies  place 

402.  The  food  principles,  digested  or  emul- 
sionized,  as  before  stated,  are  now  absorbed  into 
the  blood  and  lymph  vessels,  chiefly  through  the 
villi  of  the  intestines.  These  villi  are  minute  hair- 
like projections  from  the  lining  membrane,  from 
ro  to  To  of  an  inch  in  length.  They  are  covered 
with  soft  cells,  the  deeper  ends  of  which  reach 
the  capillary  blood-vessels  and  lymphatics  occu- 
pying the  interior  of  each  villus. 

403.  The  cells  of  the  villus  take  in  the  liquid 
products  of  digection,  and  pass  them  on  into  the 
vessels  beneath.  By  a  muscular  contraction  of 
the  villus,  these  vessels  are  emptied  at  frequent 
intervals  into  the  larger  veins  and  lymphatics  in 
the  walls  of  the  intestines. 

404.  The  interior  of  the  small  intestine, 
which  immediately  follows  the  stomach,  is 
covered  throughout  by  these  villi.  Owing  to 
the  rapid  absorption  conducted  by  them,  the 
soluble   contents   of    this   intestine   are   in   gi^eat 


r 


now     THE     ANIMAL     LIVES  2'2'.l 

part   removed   and   transferred   to  the  eireulatory 
system  before  the  largo  intestine  is  reached. 

4b.    Deatination  of  the  rich  blood  from  (he  iiiiestines 

40.').  The  veins  from  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines carry  the  vicli  products  of  digestion  into 
the  capiHaries  of  the  liver.  Here  they  not  only 
contribute  to  produce  bile,  but  also  new  combi- 
nations of  nutritive  and  other  compounds,  which 
pass  into  the  general  circulation. 

40G.  One  of  the  most  imi)ortant  of  these  new 
products  is  sugar,  which,  as  already  stated  (372), 
is  forme<l  even  in  the  liver  of  animals  fed  on  a 
strictly  carnivorous  diet.  The  importance  of  this 
product  may  be  inferred  frum  thf  fact  that  the 
liver  is  very  large  in  the  young  and  rapidly- 
growing  animal,  and  also  in  mature  animals  of 
a  meat-producing  race:  these  animals  have  ex- 
traordinary powers  of  digestion  and    fattening. 

b>7.  Another  important  function  of  the  liver 
is  tilt'  transformation, — largely  by  union  with 
additional  oxygen, — of  worn-out  or  effete  red 
globules,  and  of  nuicli  of  the  useless  nitrogenous 
material  in  the  bloml,  into  urea  and  other  solu- 
ble products.  These  pnxlucts  are  finally  |)assed 
oft  by  the  kidneys.  They  afford  a  stimulus  to 
secretion  by  the  ki<lneys,  and  supply  an  abun- 
dance of  material  which  can  pass  readily  througli 


224  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

these    organs    without   causing    irritation   or  de- 
rangement. 

408.  Another  important  liver  function  is  the 
transformation  of  peptones  (which  are  poisonous 
when  thrown  into  the  blood  in  any  considerable 
quantity)  into  products  which  are  non-poisonous, 
and  are  capable  of  assimilation.  These  pro- 
ducts form  tissue,  or  fulfill  some  other  im- 
portant  use  in   the   body. 

409.  Still  another  important  use  of  the  liver 
is  to  transform  into  harmless  compounds  the 
poisonous  products  of  bacterial  fermentations 
(such  as  ptomaines  and  toxins).  These  occur 
in  the  contents  of  the  intestine,  and  might  often 
prove  deadly  if  allowed  to  pass  this  guardian 
sentinel — the  liver — in  any  considerable  amount. 


5.   Respiration  J   or   Breathing 

5a.    What  breathing  is 

410.  Breathing  consists  in  the  substitution  of 
oxygen  of  the  air  for  carbon  dioxid  in  the  blood 
and  tissues  of  the  animal  body.  It  results  in 
the  combination  of  the  oxygen,  of  the  air  with 
certain  organic  constituents  of  the  system  ;  and 
it  fits  these  constituents  for  various  uses,  or  for 
eUmination  as  waste  matters. 


liUW  THE     ANIMAL     I.IVES  Zlo 

411.  In  tlio  main,  the  air  is  ohangt'd  in 
bivatliinc:  as  follows  :  ,,   , 

Itxuiim       Sitrogen      diuxid 
Iiispirinl.  or  brenthed-in  nir  contains  .        .  JO. 81         79. l.")  .04 

Kxpirttl,  or  breiitht-ii-out  iiir  I'ontnins  ItiJUT       79.557       4.38 

111  «'VtM\v  100  parts,  air  Inscs,  l»y  Ix'iii^'  ltr»'atlif(l, 
about  4  parts  of  oxygen,  ami  gains  alntut  4 
parts  of   carbon  dioxid. 

41"J.  In  Itroathing,  tho  air  is  also  cliargt'd 
with  watt'i'  \a]«»r  and  with  small  (|uantities  of 
ammonia  and  marsh  gas.  It  also  n'('«Mves  a 
volatile  organic  matter,  which  may  be  fcetid, 
and  when  eondenstMl  in  water  soon  develops  a 
putrid  odor. 

41.'>.  In  the  breathing  process,  the  blood  and 
tiie  air  arc  brought  into  the  closest  ]>ossiblc 
contact.  ( )ii('-c.-llfd  animals  breathe  thi«>iiLch 
the  entire  surface,  lishe.^  througii  gills  waved  in 
th»»  water,  from  whi<'h  tliey  abstract  oxygen, 
frogs  tiirough  tho  walls  of  a  simple  air-sac, 
in  which  the  blood-vessels  circulate.  In  warm- 
blooded animals,  this  sac  <»r  lung  is  divided 
throughout  into  myriads  of  mimitf  air-sa<'s  or 
colls,  varyinix  from  yir  to  -yV  <'I  an  inch  in 
<liameter.  The  walls  aro  .so  thin  that  the  blood 
llowing  through  their  capillary  vessels  is  con- 
stantly expos«'d,  on  two  sides,  to  tho  air  with 
whicii  they  are  filled.  The  membrane  consti- 
tuting  the  walls  of  those  sacs   is  so  exceedingly 

o 


226  TECE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

thin  and  permeable  that  gases  pass  through  it 
with  gi'eat  rapidity,— the  oxygen  from  the  air 
to  the  blood,  and  the  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  to  the  air. 

ob.    Blood -changes  in  respiration 

414.  The  heart  of  warm-blooded  animals 
is  composed  of  two  double  cavities,  right  and 
left,  which  are  quite  distinct  from  each  other. 
The  left  side  pumps  the  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries of  the  system  at  large,  whence  it  returns 
through  the  veins  to  the  right  side.  The  right 
side,  in  its  turn,  pumps  the  blood  into  the  arte- 
ries of  the  lungs,  whence  it  returns  by  the  lung- 
veins  to  the  left  side.  In  this  way  the  blood 
is  circulated  first  through  the  lungs,  and  then 
through  the   tissues  of  the  rest  of  the  body. 

415.  The  blood  is  of  a  dark  red  or  purple 
color  as  found  in  the  veins,  in  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  and  in  the  arteries  of  the  lungs. 
It  is  of  a  bright  crimson  hue  as  it  returns 
from  the  lungs  and  passes  through  the  left 
side  of  the  heart  and  the  arteries  to  all  parts 
of  the  body.  The  varying  color  is  determined 
by  the  presence  of  a  larger  amount  of  oxj^gen 
in  the  arterial  (bright  crimson)  blood,  and  by 
its  comparative  absence,  and  by  the  presence 
of  an  excess  of  carbon  dioxid,  in  the  venous 
(dark    red)  blood. 


Flow     Till.     ANIMAL     1,IVKS  L'"J  ( 

41t).  Tlit»  ditTiMMMKM'  hctwt'on  tlu'  arttMT-lil<»<^><l 
and  veiu-blood  is  shown   in  tin-  following  tablr  : 

VnU.        Vol:  0/ 

of  earhun 

f*xuorn        diozid 

From  ion  vols,  of  arterial  hlood  may  Im'  oMaiiu'd  .  .  *J0        39 

v.'iioii^        .  .8  to  I'J        4<) 

417.  Tlio  excess  of  oxygen  in  tlic  arterial 
Idooil  is  used  up  as  it  pas.ses  throngli  the  eajiil- 
laries,  and  is  ifplaet'd  hy  earhon  <lioxid.  Th«' 
excess  of  cai-hon  dioxid  l)roii::lit  li.H-k  hy  llic 
venous  blood  is  thrown  out  into  the  air  lill- 
ing  the  lungs,  an<l  is  replaced  in  the  blood 
by  the  oxygen  taken  up  fnmi  the  aii'.  The 
earl)on  dioxi<l  is  made  up  of  one  atom  of  car- 
i»on  obtained  by  the  breaking  up  of  tiic  tis- 
sues or  blood  elt»ments  whieh  contain  carbon, 
ami  of  two  atoms  of  oxygen  carried  to  such 
tissue  or  element  by  the  blood. 

418.  Breathing,  therefore,  or  the  combination 
of  oxygen  with  carbou  to  form  the  carbon  di- 
oxid, really  does  not  take  place  in  the  lungs, 
hut  in  the  various  parts  of  the  body  to  which 
the  bloo<l  carries  the  oxygen. 

5c.    AmoHui  of  air  rt quired 

411>.  The  amount  of  carbon  flioxid  passed 
into  the  blood  and  exhaled  by  the  lungs  is  in- 
creased by  exercise,  work,  sunsliine  and  food  ; 
hence    the   necessity    for    more     rapid    breathintr 


228  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

under  such  conditions.  The  amount  also  varies 
with  the  kind  of  animal.  The  pig  produces 
more  in  proportion  to  his  body  weight  than 
the  carnivora,  rabbit,  and  fowl  ;  and  these 
again  produce  a  larger  proportionate  amount 
than  the  horse  or  the  ox. 

420.  Air  which  contains  10  to  12  per  cent 
of  carbon  dioxid  will  no  longer  sustain  life.  The 
deleterious  effect  is  due  partly  to  the  lack  of 
oxygen  in  such  re -breathed  air,  but  also  to  the 
excess  of  the  poisonous  carbon  dioxid,  volatile 
organic  matter,  and  other  injurious  products. 
Air  which  contains  even  1  per  cent  of  carbon 
dioxid  produced  by  breathing  is  injurious  to  a 
marked  degree.  In  a  perfectly  close  place, 
where  there  can  be  no  access  of  fresh  air,  a 
horse  would  contaminate  to  this  extent  over  7,000 
cubic  feet  in  24  hours. 

421.  The  question  of  stable  space,  however,  is 
dependent  on  the  amount  of  air  that  can  be 
introduced  by  ventilation  in  a  given  length  of 
time.  The  tighter  the  building  and  the  less  the 
admission  of  fresh  air,  the  greater  must  be  the 
area  supplied  ;  while  the  greater  the  facility  for 
the  entrance  of  fresh  air,  the  smaller  need  be  the 
space  per  animal.  If  the  whole  of  the  air  could 
be  removed  every  three  hours,  1,000  cubic  feet 
per  horse  or  cow  would  suffice  to  keep  the  air 
sufficiently  pure  and  wholesome. 


now   TUK    AMM\:,    i,ivi.>  22'J 

G.    Work  ;    Wasti  :   Rest 
G'j.     Tri/.</f  of  (is.sin 

4J-.  L'lultT  luxlily  labor,  tlio  t'lciiu'iits  of  the 
muscN's   aro  used   up   to   a   eortaiii   extent,   while 

ht'at     iiiitl     waste      matters     arc      protlii 1.       A 

l>«M-i<>(l  of  rest  is  re<]uire(l  to  allow  for  rt'pair  o« 
this  wast«'.  We  see  this  earried  out  in  all  healthy 
iMitJily  funetions.  Tlif  heart,  aftt-r  radi  contrac- 
tion, has  a  short  rest  before  the  connnencenient 
of  the  next  eontraetion.  The  nniseles  that  carry 
«>n  breathinjr  work  in  relays,  those  that  <lilate  the 
ehe>t  restini^  while  those  that  cniiiid-css  the 
chest  are  in  operation.  Then  both  rest  for  an 
interval  before  the  next  inspiration  is  coni- 
nienctMl,  This  piovides  fur  rest  and  re})air  of 
both  the  muscles  an<l  nerves.  Except  for  rucIj 
rest,  botli  would  soon  be  «»xhausted  and  wasted 
beyond    the  power  of  work. 

4_M.  The  waste  of  tissues,  however,  is  not 
always  in  exact  i)roportion  to  the  amount  of 
Work.  On  the  contrary,  it  has  been  shown  by 
carefid  experiment  that  tiie  waste  of  the  working: 
nni.scle  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  expenditure 
made.  The  heat-  or  fat-producinc:  matters  in 
the  food  are  also  used  up  in  sn<-h  work. 
The  process  may  i»e  likened  to  fuel  supplied  to 
the  engine,  which  contributes  to  keep  it    runnin;^' 


230  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

with  the  expenditure  of  but  a  small  part  of  its 
own  proper  substance.  Thus  the  starch  and 
sugar  in  the  diet  contribute  not  only  to  main- 
tain heat  and  to  lay  wp  fat,  but  also  to  render 
possible  a  large  expenditure  of  muscular  energy 
and  work. 

6h.    Applications  to  practice 

424.  Such  expenditure  of  food  and  muscular 
energy  in  producing  heat  and  work  prevents  the 
laying  out  of  the  same  capital  for  other  uses, 
such  as  growth,  fattening  or  milking.  In  do- 
mestic animals,  which  can  be  profitably  kept 
only  when  adapted  to  special  uses,  expenditures 
in  other  directions  must  be  limited  as  far  as  may 
be  in  keeping  with  the  maintenance  of  health. 

425.  For  rapid  fattening,  rest  and  warmth  and 
seclusion  are  favorable.  Even  the  milch  cow,  put 
in  the  stable  in  good  health,  may  be  made  to 
give  more  milk  for  a  time  when  kept  idle  in  a 
warm  stall  than  when  turned  out  to  gather  her 
food  from  a  pasture.  This,  however,  cannot  be 
safely  carried  to  extremes.  The  continuous  dis- 
use of  the  muscles  tends  to  their  waste  and 
degeneration,  to  an  impoverishment  of  the  blood, 
to  a  loss  of  tone  of  the  nervous  and  other  organs, 
and  to  a  gradual  lowering  of  vitality.  For  ani- 
mals that  are  soon  to  be  sacrificed  to  the  butcher, 
this  is  not  to  be    considered  ;    but   for   such    as 


now     THE     ANIMAL     MVES  231 

are  to  reprodiiec  tlioir  kiuil  aii<l  kocp  up  tho 
fiitinv  ln'nl,  a  iinxlcratt'  aiiKHiiit  of  iiiiisciilai- 
exerc'iso    is    as    important     as    suitaldi.'    tood    ami 

4*J().  Tho  animal  body  is  a  very  complex 
organism,  with  an  almost  endless  variety  of  parts 
and  funotions,  each  of  which  is  more  or  less 
essential  to  the  full  nsffulnt'ss  of  tlM»  whole.  The 
best  conditi(jn  of  bodily  liealtli  is  that  in  which 
all  of  these  are  properly  adjusteil  to  eaeh  other 
and  to  the  surroundini^s.  In  the  case  of  fai-m 
animals,  the  eomplexity  is  the  j^reater  beeanse  the 
natural  functions  must  be  developed  heic  and 
restricted  there,  to  make  them  a  i>ro(itable  p(xs- 
session ;  and  all  this  imist  b«>  done  within  limits 
which  will  b«»  compatil)le  with  the  niaintenanee  of 
health  and   vii^^or. 


SI  (.(iKSTin.xs  o.y  cnxriHU  v/r 

359<i.  Th«>  lH*Ht  illiiHtrtttion  which  thi*  pupil  eiiii  Sfoiiro  of  a 
Hinjfle-rt'llrd  Htnu'tur«'I»«,H  orpnniHm  is  Ww  aniii>l>n  (  Fifj.  81). 
This  lowly  anininl  livi-s  in  stiiK'iinnt  pools,  nixl  fiin  Im«  Hi'ctireil 
by  flcrapinf;  the  scum  off  tho  stctiis  and  li>avt'H  of  watrr  plantn. 
In  \ia  lar(;or  forms  it  ia  barofy  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 

3596.  The  Fip.  85  fihowa  a  spindle-»hnped  ( involuntary)  con- 
tmctile  cell  or  fllwr  from  the  muHoular  layer  of  tho  intestine, 
■howinfr  nucleus  in  white  and  nucleolus  in  black.  It  has  no 
iuch  variety  of  functions  as  the  an]a<ba  has. 

3C0(i.  A  part  or  an  orjjanism  is  said  to  he  sp«>ciali7.ed  when 
it    is    fitted    for  some    particular  work,    rather   than    for   fffncral 


232 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


work.  A  cell  which  has  to  do  only  with  nutrition  is  special- 
ized ;  one  which  has  to  do  with  nutrition,  sensation,  locomotion. 
and   reproduction,    is    generalized.     A   cell   may   be    said    to    be 


Fig.  84.  Amoeba,  showing  large,  round  nucleus 
near  tlie  top,  enclosing  a  nucleolus,  many 
granules,  protruding   arms  of  protoplasm.  Fig.  85. 

and  white  space  round  which  the  proto-  Aluscle  cell. 

plasm  has  flowed.    Magnified  200  diameters.  Magnified. 

still  further  specialized  when  it  carries  on  some  particular  or 
special  part  of  nutrition. 

363a.  A  secretion  is  a  material  derived  from  the  blood  and 
poured  out  into  the  body.  When  this  material  is  of  no  further 
use,  it  is  eliminated,  or  removed  from  the  body,  and  is  known  as 
an  excretion.  The  saliva,  eye-water,  bile,  gastric  .iuice,  are  ex- 
amples of  secretions. 

3636.  Glands  are  secreting  organs.  Thus  the  salivary  glands 
secrete  or  make  the  saliva  or  spittle,  from  the  blood.  The 
liver  is  a  gigantic    gland,  secreting  bile  and  other  materials. 

36+a.  Glycogen  is  very  like  starch.  In  fact,  it  has  the  same 
chemical  composition, CeHioOs.  It  is  rapidly  changed  into  grape 
sugar  or  glucose  by  the  action  of  saliva  and  other  juices,  and 
it  then  becomes  available  for  the  building  of  tissue  or  keeping 
up  the  bodily  heat. 


HOW    THE     ANIMAL     LIVi:s 


233 


3C5a.  Lymph  is  n  product  of  the  blood.  It  is  n  pale  liquid 
wliioli  trniisudcn  from  the  thin  or  oapillury  Mood  vessids,  and  is 
ustd  to  nourish  niul  l>uild  up  Iho  tissues.  The  lymphiitic  system 
carriis  food  materials  to  the  plnoes  where  they  are  needed. 
Sie  -lOD/i. 

3G7u.  By  the  alimentary  canal  is  lueant  tlie  whole  ilifjestive 
traet,  bt-jjinning  with  the  mouth,  and  comitrisinj;  the  gullet  or 
csophapus,  the  stomaeh,  the  small   and   larj;e   intestines. 

371rt.  The  fats  contain  carbon, 
hydrogen  and  oxygen,  but  the  o.\y- 
gen  is  ill  small  proportion.  One 
of  the  common  fats  (palmatini  has 
the  composition  CV.iHggOo  ;  another 
(stearin)  is  CjtHhuOo. 

379(1.    In    physiology,    the    word 
firmiiit    is   used    to   designate   sub- 
iiices  which  have   power  to   make 
ich-like  materials  soluble  bycon- 
"  rting  them  into  sugar- like  materi- 
als.   These  ferments,  of  which  pfyalin 
is  one,  are  secretions.     They  are  also 
called     cnzyms.      These     secretions 
may  be  tiie  products  of  cells  in  the 
nnimal  body  or  of  independent  micro- 
organisms.     The    luioro-organisniB    are    themselves    often    called 
f«'rmenl»  [^rta). 

'dS2a.  The  single  stomach  of  ii  carnivorous  animal  is  shown 
III  Fig.  80.  The  stomach  of  n  ruminant  is  well  illustrated  in 
Fig.  87,  the  front  walls  being  cut  away  to  sliow  the  internal 
structure.  It  has  four  divisions  :  C,  paunch  ;  U,  reticulum  ;  N, 
manifoMs  ;    O,  the   true   digesting   stomach. 

3H,Vt.  There  are  various  expcriim-nts  which  the  pupil  can 
|>rrf<>rMj.  •  Mix  a  little  well-l»oiled  starch  with  n  small  quantity 
of  saliva,  and  nft«'r  n  time  it  will  be  found  to  have  become 
sweet.  If  at  Iho  outset  n  drop  of  solution  of  iodine  is  added 
to  the  mixture  it  will  pro<luce  a  blue  color  (203/>).  As  the 
starch  is  changed  into  sugar,  this  color  gradually  fades  and  in 
the  end   disappean. 


it);,  sb.    ;>u 


234 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 


387a.  An  antiseptic  is  any  material  which  destroys  germs 
or  bacteria  (284a).  The  muriatic  or  hydrochloric  acid  is  present 
in  small  amounts,  rauging  from  0.2  to  0.8  and  upward  in  1,000 
parts  in  the  different  kinds  of  animals. 

3876.  A  substance  may  be  acid  or  sour,  in  which  case  it 
turns   blue  litmus  red  (153,   153a).     It   may  be  alkaline,  as  lye, 


Fig.  87.    Stomach  of  sheep. 


Fig.  88.    Crop  and 
gizzard  of  fowl. 


in  which    case  it   turns   red   litmus   blue.      It    may  be   neutral, 
giving  neither  reaction. 

387c.  Flowerless  plants,  of  which  fungi,  ferns,  and  bacteria 
are  examples,  do  not  produce  seeds,  but  spores.  These  spores 
are  usually  single  cells,  and  contain  no  embryo.  They  can 
usually  grow,  even  after  becoming   dry.     Spores   are   commonly 


HOW     TlIK     AN'lMAl.     LIVKS  235 

more  difficult  to  kill  tlian  tho  organism  is  wlieii  iu  un  actively 
S^ovi'iiig    condition. 

390(1.  A  precipitate,  in  chemistry,  is  a  more  or  less  solitl 
luntorial,  which  is  tho  result  of  chemical  action,  and  which  settles 
to  the  bottom  of  the  liquid  in  which  it  is  formed.  Thus,  let  the 
pupil  blow  thi'ou^-h  n  straw  into  a  bottle  of  lime  water.  The 
liquid  will  become  cloudy,  and  after  u  time  the  sediment  will 
»et.tle  to  the  bottom.  Tho  pupil  has  added  the  carbon  dioxid 
(CO.)  of  his  breath  to  the  lime  water,  and  carbonate  of  lime 
(or  limestone)   has   been  formed.     Compare  194<J. 

'.\9'2a.  The  action  of  the  gastric  juice  may  lie  familiarly  seen 
in  the  curdliiig  of  milk  in  the  cheese  factory  by  means  of 
rennet.  A  little  mince-meat  mi.\ed  with  the  scrapinjjs  of  the 
lining  membrane  of  a  pig's  stomach,  rendered  slightly  acid 
by  n  drep  or  two  of  muriatic  acid  and  kept  near  blood-heat 
(IMJ°F),  will  soon  be  completely  dissolved,  with  the  formation 
of  peptone. 

39'J/>.  Rennet  is  the  digestive  principle  derived  from  the 
fourth  stomach  of  ruminants  ((),  Fig.  87 1.  This  stomach  is 
taken  from  calves  and  dried  ;  and  the  stomach  itself  is  then 
spoken  of  as  rennet.  The  stomach  of  adult  animals  could  also 
bo  use<l,  if   necessary. 

393a.  The  gastric  apparatus  of  a  chicken  is  shown  in  Fig. 
8S.  The  crop  is  at  a,  the  proventriculus  at  b,  and  the  gizzard 
at  r 

•i'Jiki.  An  emulsion  is  that  condition  in  which  fatty  or 
oily  materials  are  so  intimately  mixed  with  the  liquid  in  which 
they  nro  placed  that  they  act  much  as  if  they  were  in  actual 
solution,  even  passing  through  membranes.  Most  farmers  are 
now  familiar  with  the  u. -..-..,..  emulsion,  used  as  an  insecti- 
cide  i'iiHio). 

399rt.  Glycerin  in  ii  ^■<lI..rll•s^  liquid  which  is  aHsm-iated  with 
fats  or  fat -acids,  ond  which  may  be  derived  tnnu  them.  Its 
coiiijH.Hition  ia  Call:.  <>FI  3.  It  is  ofti  n  made  from  tho  fats  by 
urtiti. ml  means,  and  is  used  in  medicine  and  the  arts.  Also 
spelled  glycerine. 

4ftCi.  Two  villi  are  shown  in  Fig.  M>.  The  singular  form  of 
the   wurd    la  vuiua. 


286 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 


404a.  In  connection  with  intestinal  digestion  and  absorption, 
the  bile  fills  a  specially  important  economic  function,  in  sup- 
plying many  of  its  ingredients  to  be  used  over  and  over  again 
in  the  course  of  the  same  day.  The  bile  stimulates  in  a  high 
degree  the  absorption  of  the  digested  products,  entering  with 
them  into  the  veins.  As  all  the  blood  returning  from  the 
iut-estines  must  pass  through  the  liver,  the  elements  of  the 
absorbed  bile  are  secreted  anew  and  once  more  poured  into  the 
intestine.  Hence  a  small  amount  of  bile  performs  a  very  large 
amount  of  work  ;  and  hence,  too,  any  suspension  of  the  secre- 
tion of  bile  interferes  seriously  with  the  general  health. 

409a.  A  ptomaine  (pronounced  to-main)  is  a  material  formed 
from  the  decomposition  of  dead  tissue.  It  is  alkaline,  and  often 
poisonous.  The  poison  in  unwholesome  ice-cream,  for  example, 
is  a  ptomaine.  Ptomaines  often  result  from  the  destructive 
work  of  microbes.  The  term  toxin  is  applied  to  a  poisonous 
product  of  fermentation,  whether  alkaline  or  neutral. 

4096.  It  may  be  well  to  speak  of  the  destination  of  the 
chyle.     Chyle    is    the    liquid    formed    of    the    materials    absorbed 

from  the  bowels  into  the 
lymph  vessels.  It  is  albu- 
minous (nitrogenous)  and 
fatt}',  with  a  white,  milky 
color.  This,  like  the  lymph 
in  the  other  lymph  vessels 
in  various  parts  of  the 
body,  contains  white, 
spherical,  microscopic 
cells,  which  are  greatly 
increased  after  passing 
through  the  lymph  glands, 
and  when  poured  into  the 
blood  become  white  blood 
globules.  During  the  in- 
tervals in  which  there  is 
no  digestion,  the  lymph 
or  chyle  in  these  intes- 
tinal vessels,   as    in    other 


i  in.  ^'.l.  ^urtace  of  Tiupoiis  niemljraiie  of 
the  intestine,  sbowing  villi  vritli  eeu- 
tiiil  lacteal  duct  and  blood  vessels, 
and  on  the  surface  the  absorbiijg  epi- 
thelial cells. 


HOW     TIIK     ANIMAL     LIVES  237 

parts  of  the  body,  is  n  siniple  straw-colored  liijuid  i-uiisisling 
of  Hurplua  nutritive  iiiatttT  which  hns  not  been  recjuired  by 
tht»  needs  of  the  part,  and  is  l)i'iiip  returned  to  the  blood. 
In  this  lymph  we  tiud  an  important  source  of  supply  of  the 
white  blootl  jjlobuk-s,  which  are  being  constantly  used  up  ; 
ami  thus  deranf^cments  in  the  lymph  vessels  and  f^lands  injuri- 
ously affect  the  blood,  and  through  it  the  entire  animal  system. 
AOOh.  The  admirable  adaptation  of  means  to  end  is  trace- 
able in  the  sucoessive  changes  of  these  food  products.  The 
nitrogenous  constituents  in  the  food,  which  are  not  fitted  for 
absorption,  are  transformed  into  the  peptones,  which  are  spe- 
cially adapted  for  rapid  absorption.  Then  the  peptones,  which 
are  not  fitted  for  nutrition,  but  are  really  poisonous,  are  changed 
in  the  liver,  so  as  to  render  them  harmless  aiul  fitt«'d  for  the 
varied  uses  of  the  body,  or  for  elimination.  Other  food  princi- 
ples aro  turned  into  su;,'ar,  and  sonu'  poisonous  fermentation 
pro<luct9  are  rendered  harmless  through  the  action  of  the  liver. 
This  interdependence  of  different  functions  upon  each  ucher — 
mastication,  insativation,  digestion,  absorption,  transformations 
in  the  liver,  the  formation  of  normal  bluod  elements,  assimi- 
lation ond  secretion — furnishes  an  indication  of  what  goes  on 
throughout  the  whole  animal  body,  the  perfection  of  one  process 
being  essential  to  that  of  others,  and  the  derangement  of  one 
causing  disorder  of  the  others.  The  nervous  system,  which  is 
concerned  in  currying  on  all  functions,  from  those  of  simple 
nutrition  of  a  tissue  or  of  secretion  by  a  gland  up  to  such  mental 
processes  aa  the  animal  is  endowed  with,  is  dependent  on  the 
blood  for  its  own  functional  activity.  Changes  in  the  blood 
CDtail  change  in  tho  capacity  for  nervous  work  ;  so  that  disorder 
of  one  distant  organ,  acting  by  influencing  the  nervous  system, 
directly  through  tho  nerves  or  indirectly  through  the  blood, 
may  bring  about  derangements  of  the  most  varied  kind  in  the 
different  organs  subject  to  ner%'ous  influence.  The  great  func- 
tion of  the  lungs  is  the  elimination  of  carbon  dioxid  from  the 
blood  ard  tissues  and  tho  introduction  of  oxygen,  which,  being 
corrted  into  all  parts  by  tho  red  globules,  assists  in  nearly 
"v«.'-v  ••)i.<\nge  which  takes  place  in  any  organ.     But  if  the  lung^ 


238  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

fail  to  fulfill  their  function  to  any  degree,  every  organ  and 
function  is  affected.  Most  of  the  waste  nitrogenous  matter 
leaves  the  body  through  the  kidneys,  but  if  this  channel  of 
elimination  is  interfered  with,  the  effete  matters  are  retained,  and 
they  poison  and  derange  every  organ  from  the  brain  downward. 
Even  apparently  insignificant  organs  have  a  far-reaching  in- 
fluence. The  spleen  and  bone  marrow-cells  affect  the  develop- 
ment of  blood  globules.  A  small  gland  at  the  throat  (thyroid) 
affects  the  nervous  system,  and  a  still  smaller  one  at  the  base 
of   the  brain   (pituitary)    influences  the  growth  of    the  limbs. 

411a.  Kepeat  the  experiment  suggested  in  390a.  Make  lime 
water  by  placing  a  piece  of  quicklime  in  a  bottle  of  pure 
water,  shaking  and  setting  aside  to  settle.  Then  take  a  little 
of  the  clear  liquid  and  with  a  sj'ringe  force  air  through 
it.  It  will  become  only  slightly  turbid.  Next  take  a  tube  and 
blow  through  this  water  for  a  short  time,  when  it  will  become 
white  and  opaque  by  the  formation  of  lime  carbonate,  owing 
to  the  union  of  carbon  dioxid  with  the  lime. 

413a.  The  lung  of  any  of  the  higher  animals  presents  an 
enormous  surface  to  the  inspired  air.  To  illustrate  the  extra- 
ordinary extent  of  breathing  surface  formed  by  this  minute  di- 
vision of  the  lungs  into  microscopic  sacs,  it  may  be  stated  that, 
in  the  horse,  it    reaches  an  area  of  500  to  800  square  feet. 

414a.  The  heart  of  an  ox,  sheep,  or  other  animal  can  be 
obtained  at  the  slaughter  house  or  of  the  butcher.  Discover 
the  right  and  left  cavities, — a  ventricle  surmounted  by  an  auricle 
on  each  side, — the  valves  around  the  opening  leading  from  the 
auricle  to  the  ventricle,  and  the  cords  connecting  the  valves  with 
the  inner  side  of  the  ventricle. 

416a  When  blood  is  shed  in  killing  an  animal  or  otherwise, 
observe  how  the  surface  layer  gradually  changes  from  the  dark 
red  to  a  bright  crimson  as  it  takes  up  the  oxygen  from  the  air. 

418a.  In  the  conveyance  of  oxygen  in  the  blood  the  color- 
ing matter  of  the  red  globules  (hsemoglobin)  is  the  principle 
bearer.  It  combines  with  oxygen  loosely,  and  gives  it  up  promptly 
at  the  demand  of  the  carbon.  The  bright  crimson  color  is  due 
to  the  union    of   much  oxygeo  with  the  coloring  matter  of   the 


now    rm;    animal    mves  239 

reJ  blood  globiih's,  while  th«  dark  roil  huo  is  oftustd  by  (he 
comparative  absoiu'e  of  oxygi-n.  The  li<iuitl  ilements  of  the 
blood  (serum)  can  absorb  and  convey  but  little  oxyjjcn.  lu 
order  to  have  free  and  healthy  breathinp,  therefore,  the  blood 
inu8t  contain  abundance  of  red  globules,  and  these  must  be 
well  developed,  containing  n  large  amount  of  the  red  coloring 
matter.  Ill  health,  luck  of  sunshine,  and  varipu:^  diseases, 
which  cause  diminution  of  the  red  gloljules  or  of  their  coloring 
mutter,  interfere  with  respiration  and  consequently  with  the 
healthy  nutrition    and  function  of   the  tissurs  of   the  animal. 

4Jtj<j.  I'ei-sons  who  desire  a  detailed  account  of  the  physiology 
of  domestic  animals,  may  consult  F.  Smith's  "Mantial  of  Veteri- 
nary Physiolosrv."  Advice  as  to  the  treatment  of  animals  is 
w-ontuined  in  Law  s  "  Farmer's  Veterinary  Adviser." 


Chapter   XV 
THE    FEEDING    OF    THE  ANIMAL 

H.  H.    WIXQ 

1.  Sources  of  Food  of  Animals 

427.  Broadly  speaking,  an  animal  must  feed 
upon  either  animal  or  vegetable  substances,  and 
it  has  no  power  to  use  as  food  mineral  or  inor- 
ganic substances. 

428.  Any  substance  which  an  animal  may  use 
as  food  is  called  a  fodder.  A  fodder  must  con- 
tain the  substances  that  are  needed  for  suste- 
nance in  such  form  that  the  animal  can  use 
them,  and  must  not  contain  anything  that  is 
injurious  or  poisonous  to  the  animal. 

2.  How  the  Animal    Uses  Food 

429.  The  plant,  by  reason  of  its  vital  force 
and  with  the  aid  of  the  energy  of  the  sun,  trans- 
forms simple  forms  of  matter  into  more  complex 
ones,  and  in  so  doing  locks  or  stores  up  a  part 
of   the   energy  received.     The   animal,   by  means 

(240) 


thf:    fekding    of    ihk    animal  JU 

of  its  digestive  processes,  tears  down  these  sub- 
stances, setting  free  tlie  energy  and  transforming 
the  matter  into  forms  suitable  to  bf  inror{>oratrd 
into  animal  tissu*'. 

430.  Before  the  matter  of  the  fochh-r  can  be 
used,  it  is  necessary  that  tiie  animal  expend  energy 
upon  it  <luring  the  processes  of  digestion  an<l  as- 
simihition.  The  profit  of  tlie  fodder  to  the  animal 
i«;  representee!  by  the  dilTerenee  Ix'tween  tlie 
amount  of  energy  originally  present  in  the  fodder 
and  the  amount  of  energy  it  is  necessary  for  the 
animal  to  expen<l  upon  it  in  order  to  make  it 
availaide.  Some  substances  re<]uire  so  great  an 
expenditure  of  energy  by  the  animal  to  digest  or 
partially  digest  them  that  they  are  useless  as 
fo.lder^,  although  they  uiay  contain  the  proper 
compound-;  in  nieasiu'ably  jiroper  proportions. 

4.11.  Fodder  is  used  by  the  animal  (1)  as  fuel 
to  keep  up  the  bodily  heat,  without  which  the 
vital  processes  cannot  go  on;  (2)  to  rejiair  the 
wastes  of  the  various  tissues,  organs  an«l  fluids  of 
the  body;  (3)  to  form  new  tissues  or  organs,  or 
add  to  those  already  formed  (especially  in  young 
animals);  (4)  to  produce  young;  and  (5)  to  lay 
up  reserve  stores  in  the  form  of  fat  or  otherwise, 
to  secrete  various  products,  or  to  perform  nmscu- 
lar  lal>or  Many  of  these  re.serves  or  products 
are  useful  to  man,  as  milk,  wool  and  t'ixix^. 

432.     In    general,    if    the    amount    of    food    is 


242  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

insufficient  it  will  be  used  for  the  first  four  pur- 
poses, approximately  in  the  order  named  ;  and 
only  after  the  needs  of  the  animal  are  fully 
supplied  in  these  respects  will  food  be  used 
for  the  last  purpose.  The  food  used  for  the 
first  four  purposes  is  called  food  of  support  or 
food  of  maintenance ;  that  used  for  the  last 
purpose   is   food   of   production. 

433.  Not  all  of  the  food  taken  into  the  body 
can  be  used  by  the  animal.  The  digestive  fluids 
fail  to  act  upon  a  part  of  the  food,  and  this  passes 
out  through  the  intestines  as  undigested  solid 
excrement.  It  is  only  the  food  which  is  di- 
gested that  is  of  use  to  the  animal. 

434.  The  proportion  of  food  digested  varies 
with  the  animal.  One  animal  may  digest  80  per 
cent  of  the  food  eaten  ;  another,  standing  by  its 
side,  equally  healthy  and  equally  vigorous  and 
of  similar  age,  may  digest  less  than  40  per 
cent. 

435.  The  amount  digested  varies  with  the  food 
and  with  the  different  constituents  in  the  food. 
Some  foods  are  almost  wholly  digested;  of  others 
less  than  one-fourth  is  digested.  In  any  given 
fodder,  one  constituent  may  be  readily  and 
largely  digestible,  while  another  is  digested  only 
with  difficulty  and  in  a  small  amount.  In  general, 
of  the  food  eaten  only  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  is  digested. 


TUE    FEiciJiNG    OF   tiil:    am.mal  243 

3.   Composition  of  Fodders 
3a.   Clansijinitiiin 

4.')G.  Fodilers  are  made  up  of  a  larcro  nninber 
of  siihstancos,  all  of  which  aro  of  niovo  or  less 
use  to  the  aniiual,  and  each  of  which,  to  some 
extent,  serves  a  definite  purpose  when  used  as 
food.  Wliile  the  number  of  separate  eompouiids 
in  fodders  is  very  large,  they  fall  into  a  few  very 
di><tinet  groups  or  classes,  depending  upon  their 
composition  ami  the  purposes  which  they  serve 
the  animals,  Tiu^se  classes  are  (a)  water, 
(/>)  ash,  (r)  protein,  (d)  carbohydrates,  iuciuding 
fiber,  (r)fut. 

:V>.    \V,t(n- 

437.  Water  is  present  in  all  fodders  without 
exception,  but  the  proportion  is  very  variable. 
Soin»»  roots  and  green  fresh  fodders  occasionally 
luive  as  much  as  00  per  cent  of  water,  whereas, 
iu  some  o£  the  kiln-drie<l  by-products  the  per- 
centage of  water  may  fall  as  low  as  5  or  G  per 
rent.  Ordinary  air-dried  foilder,  as  the  grains, 
hay,  straw,  usually  contains  from  10  to  1.')  per 
cent  of  water. 

43"^.  The  water  in  the  fodder  to  a  certain 
extent  supplies  the  needs  of  th<'  animal  insteail  of 
water   which    is   drunk.      Animals    consuming    a 


244  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

watery  food  will  need  to  drink  less  water  ;  but 
no  food  contains  so  much  water  that  it  can  be 
used  by  the  animal  to  supply  its  needs  for 
both  water  and  solid  matters. 

439.  In  general,  water  adds  tenderness,  suc- 
culence and  palatability  to  fodders.  Green  fresh 
fodders  are  more  palatable  than  the  same  foddei's 
dried  ;  and  the  palatability  of  hay  or  other  dry 
fodder  may  be  increased  by  soaking  in  water,  or 
by  steaming. 

3c.  Ash 

440.  Ash  is  the  small  residue  which  is  left 
when  any  animal  or  vegetable  matter  is  com- 
pletely burned.  It  is  mineral  matter  obtained  by 
the  plant  from  the  soil  (147,  192),  and  is  com- 
posed of  very  nearly  the  same  substances  in  both 
plants  and  animals.  Some  ash  is  found  in  all 
parts  of  all  plants  and  all  animals,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  those  parts.  Life  can  not  be  main- 
tained or  the  vital  processes  carried  on  without 
this  ash. 

441.  In  general,  the  proportion  of  ash  is 
small,  but  the  bones  of  animals  and  certain 
parts  of  the  plant,  as  the  bark,  contain  con- 
siderable amounts.  With  scarce  an  exception, 
the  amount  of  ash  present  in  ordinary  fodders. 
is  sufficient  for  the  needs  of  the  animal,  and, 
therefore,  it  need  not   be  taken   into   account  in 


THE      FEEDING      OF      THK      ANIMAL  246 

making  up  a  ration  ov  deciding  npon  a  fodder; 
since  no  matter  wliat  is  fed,  it  is  aitnost  certain 
that  tlie  animal  will  find  in  it  an  aljundant  sup- 
ply of  the  jiroper  mineral  elements,  with  the 
exi'eption  «)!"   common  salt. 

.'](/.     Alhiiniinniil.'i 

442.  Th<'  protein,  or  proteids,  constitutes  a 
v.TV  important  group  of  fodder  constituents. 
Wliile  they  are  of  a  complex  and  varied  com- 
position, all  contain  nitrogen  as  a  distinctive 
j'oiistituent,  as  well  as  carbon,  oxygen  and 
hydrogen,  and  usually  sulfur  ami  })lio>plini-us. 
It  is  the  nitrogen  that  gives  to  the  nicnihers 
of    this   gi-oup    tlu'ir   importance  as  food  {."{TO). 

44">.  Organic  activities  can  not  lj(»  maintained 
without  nitrogen.  It  is  an  essential  constituent 
of  the  living  animal  <»r  vegetalde  cell,  and  no 
new  growth  can  take  place  without  it  ;  <'on.se- 
•  luenlly  it  nmst  bo  constantly  supplied  in  the 
food  of  both  ]»lant  and  animal,  ii'itrogen  is  not 
a  ctmstituent  of  the  other  groui)S  of  food  el«>- 
ments,  and,  therefore,  the  growth  of  the  animal 
dt'pen«ls  in  largo  measure  on  tlio  supply  of  protein. 

411.  While  more  or  less  protein  is  foinid  in 
nearly  all  fodders,  its  proportion  i.s  very  va- 
rial>le,  and  in  very  many  ca.ses  is  le.^s  than  is 
required  by  the  animal  to  sustain  life  or  to  make 
useful  growth.    Those  fodders  that   contain    large 


246  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

amounts  of  protein  are  mainly  found  in  the  grains 
and  other  concentrated  foods  that  are  relatively 
high-priced.  Both  these  conditions  make  the 
problem  of  successful  feeding  largely  one  of  the 
sufficient  and  economical  supply  of  albuminoids. 
If  an  insufficient  amount  is  furnished,  the  animal 
suffers  in  growth  or  production:  if  more  than 
enough  is  supplied,  costly  waste  ensues. 

Ze.   Carholiijd rates 

445.  By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  dry  matter 
of  fodders  is  classed  with  the  carbohydrates,  the 
most  familiar  examples  of  which  are  sugars, 
starch,  gum  and  vegetable  fiber  (371).  These 
substances  contain  carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen — the 
two  latter  in  the  proportions  in  which  they  are 
found  in  water.     They  contain  no  nitrogen. 

446.  By  union  with  oxygen  in  the  lungs  and 
blood,  the  carbohydrates  are  decomposed  into 
carbonic  acid  (carbon  dioxid)  and  water,  and 
heat  is  evolved  in  precisely  the  same  way  as 
under  ordinary  combustion  in  the  air.  They 
are  thus  the  main  source  of  heat  to  the  animal. 
They  are  also  a  source  of  muscular  energy,  and 
in  most  cases  an  important  source  of  fat  in  both 
tissue  and   product. 

447.  Of  the  carbohj'drates,  fiber  is  much  less 
readily  acted  on  by  the  digestive  fluids,  and 
often  a  large  part  of  it  passes  through  the  animal 


Tin:     FEEDINQ     OF     THE     ANIMAL  247 

without  change.  For  this  reason  it  is  often  con- 
venient to  consider  it  in  a  cImss  liy  itself.  So  far 
as  it  is  used  at  all,  it  serves  tlie  same  purpose  as 
the  other  carboliydrates. 

3/.  Fats 

448.  The  fats  (371(0  of  f(,)dder  are  used  by 
the  animal  for  much  the  same  purposes  as  the 
carbohydrates.  They  contain  only  carl>on,  oxy- 
gen and  hydro.ii:en,  but  proportionately  much 
less  oxygen  than  the  carbohydrates.  For  this 
reason  they  yield  much  more  eneri^y  when  dr- 
composed  or  l)urned,  and  are,  therefori',  of 
mueh  more  value  to  the  animal  than  the  carbo- 
hydrates. 

4l!>,  The  amount  of  energj'  yielded  by  differ- 
ent fats  varies  somewhat,  l)ut  in  freneral,  it  is 
about  two  and  one- fourth  times  as  much  as  that 
yicldt-d  by  an  ecjual  weight  of  sugar  or  starch  ; 
and  in  reducing  fat  to  its  "starch  equivalent"  (for 
pur|>oses  of  comparison)  this  is  the  factor  com- 
monly emphyed.  Ill  ordinary  fodders  the  per- 
centage of  fat  is  not  large,  running  from  about 
3  to  about  8  per  <'eiit  of  the  air-dry  substance. 

4.   Feeding 
4(1.   \Hln''ve  ratio 

4.')().  Fn^m  what  has  already  been  said,  it  will 
be  seen   that   the   protein,  carbohydrates  aixl    fatj* 


248  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

are  the  constituents  of  the  fodder  that  are  of 
dh'ect  use  to  the  animal.  These  are  often  collec- 
tively sjDoken  of  as  nutrients,  and  the  portion  of 
them  that  is  digestible  as  digestible  nutrients. 

451.  Since  the  protein  (or  albuminoids)  is 
necessary  to  growth  and  reproduction,  and  since 
the  carbohydrates  and  fats  are  mainly  used  to 
produce  heat  and  work  and  reserve  stores  of 
fat,  the  proper  relations  of  these  constituents 
to  one  another  in  various  fodders  and  rations 
constitute  an  important  part  of  the  science  and 
art  of  feeding.  A  ration  is  said  to  be  balanced 
when  these  substances  exist  in  the  proper  propor- 
tion to  one  another  for  the  purpose  intended. 

452.  It  has  been  found  convenient  to  express 
the  relation  between  the  protein  and  other  con- 
stituents in  the  form  of  a  ratio,  known  as  the 
nutritive  ratio.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  the  ratio  of 
the  digestible  protein  to  the  digestible  carbohy- 
drates plus  two  and  one-fourth  times  (449)  the 
digestible  fat,  expressed  in  terms  of  unity  or 
one  of  the  protein. 

453.  The  nutritive  ratio  is  found  by  adding  to 
the  digestible  carbohydrates  two  and  one -fourth 
times  the  digestible  fat,  and  dividing  by  the 
digestible  protein.  It  is  expressed  thus  :  Nutr. 
Ratio  1:  5.5.  It  means  that  in  some  certain  fod- 
der or  ration  there  is  for  each  pound  of  digest- 
ible protein  or  flesh -forming  nutrients,  five  and 


THK     FEKDINO     OF     TIIK     ANIMAL  249 

oiii'-!iaU'  poiiiuls  of  digestible  heat  and  t"at- 
foniiing  elements.  A  ratio  is  said  to  be  wide  or 
narrow  wlien  tlie  projwrtion  of  heat-forming 
nutrients  is  large  or  small  in  proportion  to  the 
protein.     Thus,  1:  \'2  is  widtM-  than  1:  7. 

•\'i\.  A  ••.Ttaiii  }>n»p<ii-tinii  sjiould  »'.\ist  lictween 
th«'  nitrogenous  and  n»>n-nitrogenous  nutrients  of 
a  ration.  Animals  that  an*  growing  rai)idly,  that 
are  bearing  young,  and  that  aro  i>ro<lucing  wool, 
milk  or  egi^s,  require  a  more  nitrogenous  food 
than  animals  that  are  working,  or  fattening,  or 
living  without  gain  (»r  loss  of  weight.  For  the 
lattt-r,  tilt'  nutritive  ratio  may  bt>  as  wide  as  1:  12 
or  1:14;  for  the  former,  tli<'  nutritive  i-atio  should 
be  as  narrow  as   1  :  .'>  or   1:  li. 

i'>').  Formerly  it  was  su]>posed  that  slightly 
ditTeriiig  nutritive  ratios  would  make  distinct 
dilTei«'nees  in  the  (»tTectiveness  of  a  ration  or  the 
quality  of  the  j)roduet  ;  but  it  is  now  generally 
considered  that  the  limits  of  variation  in  the 
nutritive  ratio  may  bf  rather  wide  without  iiuite- 
rially  intlueneing  the  nutritive  etTe«'t  of  the 
ration.  Otlu'r  (•on<litions  may  mask  the  effect 
(hie  to  dilTerenees  in   the  nutritive  ratio. 

4.')J.  One  of  the  chii'f  reasons  for  taking  the 
nutritive  ratio  into  consideration  is  that  the  i>ro- 
tein  may  l>o  economically  used.  Protein  sliould 
be  used  for  the  formation  of  nitrogenous  pro<inc't8 
in  the  animal.      It   mav,    however,    be   used   n-^    a 


/ 


250  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICUX,TURE 

source  of  heat,  instead  of  the  cheaper  starch  or 
sugar.  This  may  occur  in  any  ration  when  the 
proportion  of  protein  is  in  excess  ;  but  there  is 
generally  a  too  small  proportion  of  protein. 

457.  By  far  the  larger  number  of  natural 
fodders  are  deficient  in  protein,  and  a  chief  task 
of  the  feeder  is  to  furnish,  from  by-products  or 
otherwise,  a  sufficient  amount  of  albuminoids  in 
the  cheapest  form.  Usually  more  protein  can 
be  used  to  advantage  by  the  animal  than  is 
furnished  to  it. 

46.   Quantity  of  food  required 

458.  The  quantity  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
profitably  or  economically  use  is  dependent  upon  a 
variety  of  circumstances  and  conditions.  In  the 
first  place,  a  certain  amount  must  go  to  the  sup- 
port of  the  body  and  the  vital  functions.  This  is 
known  as  the  food  of  maintenance  (432) ;  and 
a  ration  calculated  to  keep  an  animal  alive  and 
in  good  health  without  gain  or  loss  of  body 
weight   is   called  a  maintenance  ration. 

459.  The  amount  of  food  required  for  sup- 
port depends  upon  the  size  and  somewhat  upon 
the  individuality  of  the  animal.  Small  animals 
require  more  food  in  proportion  to  their  weight 
than  large  ones.  Average  animals  of  the  same 
class,  however,  are  usually  considered  to  require 
food    in   proportion   to   their    body  weight.      In 


THE     FEEDING     OF     TMK     ANIMAL  2")1 

gentM'al,  for  horsos  an<l  cattlo,  a})ont  18  pounds 
per  (lay  of  dry  matter  prr  l,i>(i()  pounds  livo 
wei^clit    is    requirt'(l    tor    niaiiitenaiico. 

4(30.  It  is  from  tli«»  food  eaten  in  addition  to 
that  required  for  inaint«Mian(M'  tliat  llu*  i)r(>iit 
«'Oines  to  the  feeder.  Ilenee,  if  an  animal  re- 
ceives no  more  than  enough  to  sustain  life,  it 
ean  produee  no  profit  to  its  owner.  Much  less 
is  tli»'n»  j>rotit  if  an  animal  is  allowetl  to  Ios»« 
in  wtiLrlit  ;  for  common  experience  has  shown 
that  when  an  animal  is  once  allowed  to  sulT«'r 
loss  in  weight,  the  loss  is  regained  only  at  an 
increased  ex]u'nditure  of  food  above  what  was 
originally  required    to    produce    it. 

4*)1.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
use  profitably  over  and  above  that  iXMiuin-d  for 
maintenance,  depends  upon  the  capacity  (»f  the 
animal  and  the  j)urpose  of  i)roduction.  Morst 
animals  will  make  a  return  approximately  in 
proportion  to  the  food  consumed,  up  to  a  cer- 
tain amount.  Above  that  amount,  the  foo«l 
simply  passes  through  the  animal  ;  or  the  di- 
gestive ai)paratus  becomes  disordered  and  the 
animal  refuses  to  eat.  However,  the  capacity 
of  different  animals  in  this  respect  varies  widely. 

4<)2.  Assume  that  six  pounds  per  day  per 
1,000  poun<ls  live  weight  is  about  tiie  average 
amount  of  dry  matter  that  an  animal  can  prolil- 
al)ly  use  above  that  required  for  support.     It  will 


L 


252  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 

be  found  that  many  animals  can  not  profitably  use 
more  than  three  or  four  pounds,  while  others  can 
use  from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds,  and  an  occasional 
animal  can  profitably  use  a  still   larger  amount. 

463.  The  amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can 
or  will  eat  must  not  be  confounded  with  the 
amount  of  food  that  an  animal  can  profitably 
use.  Many  animals  can  and  constantly  do  pass 
through  their  bodies  a  considerable  amount  of 
food  of  which  no  use  whatever  is  made,  and 
this,  too,  without  interfering  in  an}'  way  with  the 
general  health,  digestive  functions,  or  even  with 
the  appetite. 

4:C.  Feeding  standards 

464.  Feeding  standards  show  the  amount  and 
proportions  of  the  various  nutrients  that  have 
been  found  by  experience  to  be  best  adapted 
to  the  various  purposes.     A  few  are  given : 

For  Each  1,000  Pounds  Live  Weight  per  Day. 

Dry 
matter 

Oxen  (maintenance)  .  17.5  lbs. 

Horses  at  work    .    .    .22.5    " 

Milk  cows 24.      " 

Growing  pigs  (young)  42.      " 

465.  In  any  given  case,  these  or  any  stand- 
ards may  be  advantageously  varied  to  a  con- 
siderable extent.    The  standards  are  mere  guides. 


Digestible 
protein 

0.7  lbs. 

Digestible 

carbohydrates 

and  fat 

8.15  lbs. 

]\"utritive 
ratio 

1:  12 

1.8    " 

11.8      " 

1:7 

2.5    " 

12.9      " 

1:5.4 

7.5    " 

30. 

1:4 

THF.     FKKDlNi;     OF    THK     ANIMAI,  253 

The  skill  of  the  feeder  depends  up* in  his  success 
111  liiidin;^  out  how  far  the  individual  roquir*'- 
meiits  of  his  auiuuds  warrant  a  variation  in  th<' 
stan<hird. 

4(/.    Ii\iU;   in    f/i>    nifinu 

4C»«>.  Asidt'  fn »in  tlu>  amount  of  difcestibl*- 
nutrients  an«l  tlir  luitritive  ratio,  tlic  l)ull<  of 
tlj«'  ration  is  a  matter  (^f  ('onsidt'ral)le  impor- 
tance. It  has  already  been  noted  (4^^.)  that 
considt'rable  portions  of  all  the  nutrients  an- 
not  dip'sted.  Consefiuently,  in  «n-ery  ration  therr 
is  more  or  less  material  of  which  the  animal 
makes  no  use,  and  which  may  be  saiil  t<»  merely 
add  to  the  l)ulk  of  the  rati(»n.  Water  and  liber 
are,  above  all  other  thinirs,  the  substances  wliieli 
give  bulk  to  a  fod(h'r  or  ration. 

467.  Fodders  which  contain  large  amounts 
of  either  or  both  of  tlieso  substances  are  said  to 
b.'  coarse  or  bulky  ;  fodders  which  have  a  min- 
imum amount  are  said  to  be  concentrated.  If 
a  ration  is  too  liulky,  the  animal  is  unable  to 
eat  enough  to  obtain  sufficient  nutrients.  On 
the  other  hand,  a  ration  may  be  so  cunceutrated 
that  the  proper  amount  of  digestible  nutrients 
do  not  sufficiently  distend  the  digestive  organs 
so  that  the  ga.stric  flui«ls  may  fully  act.  This  is 
particularly  the  case  with  nuninant.<*  (38*2-384, 
367). 


254  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

468.  When  the  ration  is  unduly  bulky  be- 
cause of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  fiber, 
it  is  often  so  unpalatable  as  not  to  be  readily 
eaten.  On  the  other  hand,  when  water  is  the 
bulky  element,  the  food  is  almost  always  very 
palatable,  but  the  excess  of  water  has  a  loosen- 
ing and  depleting  effect  upon  the  digestive  sys- 
tem. Under  ordinary  conditions  for  ruminants, 
about  two-thirds  of  the  ,dry  matter  should  be 
furnished  in  the  form  of  coarse  forage  and  one- 
third  in  concentrated  food.  For  horses  at  work, 
not  more  than  one -half  should  be  coarse  forage, 
while  swine  and  poultry  require  the  ration  to  be 
in  a  still  more  concentrated  form. 

4e,  Palatableness 

469.  It  is  found  to  be  profitable  to  provide, 
even  at  considerable  expense,  a  certain  amount 
of  fresh  gi'een  food  for  winter  feeding,  in  the 
form  of  roots  or  like  material,  as  a  tonic  to 
appetite  and  digestion.     Silage  is  now  popular. 

470.  The  palatability  of  a  fodder  or  ration, — 
that  is,  the  readiness  or  eagerness  with  which 
it  is  eaten, — is  a  matter  of  great  importance. 
The  nutritive  effect  of  a  ration  often  depends 
upon  this  factor  alone.  In  general,  animals 
will  make  a  better  return  from  a  ration  that 
is  palatable,  even  though  it  may  not  be  ideally 


TlIK     FEKDING     OF     THK     ANIMAL  2r>5 

perfect  according  to  the  stantlanl,  than  they 
will  iVoin  a  perfectly  balanced  ration  that  they 
do  not  like.  In  many  cases  the  quality  of  j>ala- 
tability  is  inherent  with  th(»  fodder,  in  others 
it  is  due  to  the  individual  whini  of  tlic  animal. 
It  can  only  bo  determined  for  each  fodder  and 
each    animal    bv  actual    trial. 


4/.    Cnnkiuij   diid  jinjxiriinj   (lit    food 

171.  Most  domestic  animals  are  able  to  eat 
and  digest  ordinary  forage  and  grains  in  their 
natural  state.  But  almost  all  fodders  may  be 
prepared  in  various  ways  so  that  mastication 
and  digestic^n  an*  facilitat«Ml  oi-  )»alatability  in- 
crease<l.  Oidy  upon  one  p«»iut  is  there  general 
agreement — that  f(^r  most  animals  it  is  bett«M-  that 
the  cereal  grains  be  ground  before  feeding.  As 
to  the  advantages  and  (bsadvantage.s  of  cutting 
or  shre(Ming  coarse  fod<ler,  antl  soaking,  steam- 
ing and  cooking  foods,  opinion  is  very  iuu<h 
divided. 

17J.  Tliere  is  prol)al>]y  .some  economy  in 
consumption  \vi»en  <M)arse  fodders  are  cut  or 
sliredded.  Palatability  is  often  incn^ased  l»y 
soaking,  steaming  or  cooking;  l)Ut  cooking 
renders  albuniinouls  less  digestible,  and  to  that 
extent   is  a  distinct  disadvantage. 

47.1.    .\    certain    amount     of    varietv    in     the 


256  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

constituents  of  the  ration  is  appreciated  by 
all  animals.  If  the  ration  is  composed  of 
several  fodders,  these  may  be  mixed  in  a  uni- 
form mass  and  this  mixture  fed  continuously 
for  long  periods  of  time.  This  is  particularly 
true  of  cattle  and  swine. 

SUGGESTIONS    ON  CHAPTER   XV 

4:37a.  By-products  are  secondary  products  whieh  result  from 
the  manufacture  of  a  given  product.  Tbus,  buttermilk  and  skim- 
med milk  are  by-produeta  of  butter-making,  whey  of  cheese- 
making,  pomace  of  cider-making,  bran  of  flour-making  Many 
important  by-products  used  in  feeding  animals  result  from- the 
manufacture  of  breakfast  cereals,  the  manufacture  of  glucose 
syrups,  and  the  processes  of  brewing  and  distilling. 

442a.  The  group  takes  its  name  from  albumin,  which  is  seen 
in  its  purest  and  most  common  form  in  the  white  of  egg. 
The  gluten  or  sticky  part  of  the  wheat  kernel,  the  casein  or 
cheesy  part  of  milk,  and  the  muscular  fibers  of  lean  meat,  are 
also  familiar  examples  of  albuminoids.  From  the  many  forms 
they  assume,  they  are  often  spoken  of  as  protein  compounds,  or 
proteids.    They  are  also  often  called  nitrogenous  substances  (370). 

443a.  The  albuminoids  are  necessary  to  all  the  processes  of 
growth  and  reproduction  ;  and  since  most  animal  products,  as 
wool,  flesh,  eggs  and  milk,  contain  large  amounts  of  nitrog- 
enous matter,  the  albuminoids  are  likewise  essential  to  pro- 
duction as  well  as  growth.  When  the  members  of  this  group 
are  decomposed  or  broken  down,  they  give  up  heat,  and,  there- 
fore, may  be  used  to  keep  the  animal  warm  (372).  It  is  not 
at  all  uncertain  that  they  are  not  concerned  in  the  forma- 
tion and  storing  up  of  fat  in  the  tissues  and  milk. 

445a.  The  word  carbohydrate  (written  also  carbhydrate) 
means  carbon-hydrate.  The  Avord  hydrate  signifies  a  substance 
ia  which  water  combines  with  some  other  element  :  in  the  carbo- 
hydrates, this  other  element  is  carbon.     In  all  the  carbohydrates. 


THK     FKKDINO     OK     THE      ANIMAL 


lii'l? 


the  oxTjren  and  hyilrojron  nro  in  tlio  proportions  i 
occur  in  water, — two  atoms  of  hydrogen  to  one  of 
IS  water.  I'Mb).  The  carbo- 
hydrates are  sometimes  called 
ainjioids,— that  is,  starch -like 
materials. 

4."i;><i.  Tlie  detenninatioii 
of  the  nutritive  ratio  is  very 
Himple.  For  example  :  clover 
hay  of  aver.ipe  quality  con- 
tains say  7A%  of  digestible 
protein,  11.7'?'  of  digestible 
fiber,  26.3^  of  digestible  car- 
bohydrates other  than  fiber, 
and  1.9'^  of  digestible  fat. 
Then  2}^  times  1.9  is  4.3; 
to  this  is  added  11.7  and  2G.3, 
making  in  all  42.3,  or  the 
starch -equivalent  of  all  the 
beat-  and  fat-forming  nutri- 
ents. Then  42.3  divided  by 
7.4  equals  f).".  The  nutritive 
ratio  of  clover  hay  is,  there- 
fore, 1:5.7. 

45.*^.   The  results  obtained 
from  any  foo<l  depend  in  large 
measnn*      upon       the 
bousing       and       care  t  < 

which   the  animal   re-  'j 


n  which  they 
oxygen  (HjO 


rr'i- 


A  rhvap  hv<i 

offlclcnt 
•tto 


■'■jj;jy^  : 


258  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

ceives.  Stock  should  have  warm,  airy,  light,  clean,  sweet  stables 
(see  Fig  32,  p.  86 1 ;  and  in  cold  weather  the  drinking  water 
should  be  slightly  warmed.  Stock  should  not  be  turned  out  on 
cold  and  blustery  days,  and  a  covered  yard  (Fig,  30)  should  be 
provided.  To  endeavor  to  secure  good  results  in  feeding  ani- 
mals which  are  cold  and  uncomfortable  is  like  trying  to  heat  a 
house  with  the  windows  open. 

4G9rt.  Our  domestic  animals  while  in  a  wild  state  depended 
for  existence  almost  wholly  upon  green  forage.  This  trait 
survives  in  the  fact  that  in  many  cases  animals  will  make  a 
larger  return  for  a  given  amount  of  nutrients  when  giveu  green 
and  fresh  food  than  they  will  for  the  same  nutrients  when  dry. 

4696.  Silage  (not  ensiiasre)  is  forage  preserved  in  a  green  and 
succulent  condition.  It  is  preserved  by  being  kept  in  a  tight 
receptacle,  from  which  air  and  germs  are  excluded  as  much  as 
possible.  This  receptacle  is  called  a  silo.  Maize  (corn-fodder) 
is  the  most  popular  silage  material.  It  is  cut  into  lengths  of 
an  inch  or  two  and  immediately  placed  in  the  silo,  being 
firmly  tramped  and  compacted,  and  the  mass  then  covered  with 
straw,  hay,  boards,  or  other  material.  Circular  silos  are  best 
because  the  material  settles  evenly  all  around.  Fig.  90  shows 
a  very  economical  silo  at  Cornell  University.  It  is  12  feet  in 
diameter  and  24  feet  high,  and  rests  on  a  cement  floor.  It  is 
made  of  lumber  24  feet  long,  6  inches  wide  and  2  inches  thick, 
the  edges  not  bevelled.  The  pieces  are  held  together  by  sec 
tions  of  woven  fence-wire,  drawn  together  by  means  of  screw 
clamps.  There  is  no  framework.  Silage  is  useful  as  a  part  of 
the  daily  ration,  but  it  is  easy  to  feed  it  to  excess.  Forty  pounds 
a  day  is  usually  sufficient  for  a  cow  in  full  milk. 

473a.  Persons  who  desire  to  pursue  these  subjects  furthe** 
should  consult  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding,"  and  Armsby's 
"Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding;"  also  Jordan's  '^i^eed-ug  of  Animals." 


CHAPTKH     XVI 

Tin-:    MANACK.MHNT    OF    STOCK 

/.  y    KOBE  UTS 

1.    The    Ijiri(/iii(/    of   Stock 
\it .    Wlint  is  meant  by  breeding 

474.  Animals  ^row  old  and  die,  or  they  are 
slaughtered  for  food.  Other  animals  are  born 
and  take  their  j)lao«»s.  Not  only  is  a  new  ani- 
mal l)orn,  but  every  i»air  of  animals  is  able  to 
produce  more  than  two  :  that  is,  the  total  num- 
i)er  of  animals  increases.  This  birth  and  multi- 
plication  is   known  as   propagation. 

475.  But  it  is  not  enough  that  new  animals 
and  more  of  them  shall  appear :  these  new 
animals  must  be  desirable.  They  must  have 
certain  attributes  or  characters  which  make 
them  valuable.  In  order  that  these  desirable 
qualities  shall  arise,  the  stockman  selects  cer- 
tain animals  to  ]»ropagate  the  race ;  and  this 
control  of  the  kind  of  olTspring  which  shall 
appear   is   known   as   breeding. 

47(3.    Breeding    may    have    two     object>  :     to 

(250) 


260  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

maintain  or  reproduce  the  given  type  or  breed ; 
to  produce  a  new  type  or  breed.  One  may  have 
small  red  cows,  and  desire  to  produce  others  like 
them,  or  with  some  improvement  on  the  same 
lines  ;  or  he  may  wish  from  these  animals  to 
produce  large  red  cows.  In  the  former  case,  he 
maintains  his  type  ;  in  the  latter,  he  produces  a 
new  type. 

477.  A  breed  is  a  general  race  or  type  which 
reproduces  itself  more  or  less  closely.  It  is 
analagous  to  a  variety  in  plants.  Among 
cattle,  there  are  such  breeds  as  Short-horns, 
Jerseys,  Devons,  Holsteins  ;  among  fowls,  such 
as  Bantams,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,* 
Shanghais.  The  person  who  guides  and  con- 
trols the  propagation  of  animals  is  known  as 
a  breeder. 

16.   Tlie  mental  ideal 

478.  The  first  principle  in  breeding  is  to 
know  what  qualities  one  wants  to  secure.  The 
breeder  must  have  a  distinct  ideal  in  mind. 

479.  Many  ideals  are  impracticable.  In  order 
to  be  practicable  or  useful,  the  ideal  must  be 
governed  by  two  factors  :  the  person  must  know 
the  characteristics  of  the  class  of  animals  with 
which  he  is  working ;  he  must  know  which 
qualities   are  most   likely  to  be  carried   over  to 


THK     MANAliKMKNT     '>»       <l')fK  261 

the  offspring,  or  ho  porpotuah'ti.      IJotli  <)1"  these 
factors   art>   ih'toriiiinod   hy  oxporioiice. 

480.  Tho  i(hnil  typt*  of  animal  varies  witli  tli«' 
uses  to  wliieh  tlie  animal  is  to  Ix'  put  and  witli 
the  breed.  The  points  of  merit  in  a  dairy  cow 
(one  which  is  rai^fil  cliit'lly  for  the  ])roduction 
of  milk)  are  iinlik*'  tin*  points  in  an  idt-al  beef 
animal.  The  jioints  in  an  id»'al  Short-horn  ar«' 
unlik«'  those  iu  au  ideal  Ayrshire. 

481.  Animals  are  judged  by  their  general 
form,  the  texture  of  hide  and  hair,  framework 
or  bony  sti-ti«'tin*e,  their  motions,  and  dispositions, 
their  performance  and  their  products. 

\r.     Ifiiir  to  ntfit'ni   flic   iilenl 

4SJ.  Ilaviiii,'  Irariit'd  wliat  thf  ideal  animal 
<houId  b»',  the  breeder  strives  to  secure  that  ideal 
by  breeding  only  from  those  animals  which  most 
nearly  approach  the  ideal. 

48.'^  Animals  vary  in  their  power  to  trans- 
mit their  own  features  to  theii-  offspring.  Some 
animals,  without  any  visible  eause,  possess  the 
power  of  transmitting  their  own  <'liaraeteristic8 
to  an  unusual  degree.  Such  animals  are  said 
to  be  prepotent.  Inferior  animals  may  be  jm'- 
potent,  a.s  well  as  superior  ones.  It  is  impor- 
tant, then,  to  discover  beforehand  if  an  animal 
is   prepotent,  or   is  what   stoekmen   call   a  "goo(l 


262  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

breeder;"  although  prepotency  can  be  positively 
known  only  by  the  character  of  the  offspring. 

484-.  The  following  are  more  or  less  certain 
indications  of  prepotency:  the  eyes  are  bright, 
wide  open,  alert,  fairly  wide  apart  and  somewhat 
protruding,  or  the  rev^erse  of  sunken.  The  hair 
is  fine  and  soft,  the  skin  neither  thick  and 
leathery  nor  too  thin  or  "papery,"  nor  of  flabby 
structure.  The  bones  are  of  moderate  size  and 
have  the  appearance  of  being  fine  grained  and 
strong,  as  indicated  by  head,  limbs,  feet  and 
horns.  Such  animals  are  usually  symmetrical, 
although  they  may  not  be  fat.  In  of  all  their 
movements  they  are  vigorous,  alert  and  powerful 
and,  above  all,  courageous. 

485.  Now  and  then  a  "sport"  appears, — an 
animal  which  has  some  new  or  strange  feature, 
something  that  we  have  rarely  or  never  seen 
before  in  that  breed  (as  a  hornless  or  muley 
animal  amongst  normally  horned  animals).  Such 
occasional  characters  are  usually  not  easily  per- 
petuated, though  sports  have  been  the  origin  of 
many  stable  types,  especially  among  plants.  Per- 
manent improvement  is  more  likely  to  be  secured 
by  slow,  small,  steady  augmentation,  not  by  leaps 
and  bounds. 

483.  The  longer  any  line  of  animals  is  bred 
to  a  single  ideal  or  standard,  the  more  uniform 
the   animals    become.     The    breed  or  the  family 


THE      MANAGEMENT      OF     STOCK  2G3 

hooomes  "fixeil."  Tho  record  of  this  long  lino 
of  breeding  is  known  as  the  pedigree.  Tho 
l»)ng«'r  tiie  ix-digrce,  tlie  greater  is  th(»  likeli- 
hood that  the  animal  Aviil  rej)ro(lnct>  its  charac- 
ters; that  is,  cluu-iicteristics  which  have  been 
long  present  are  more  potent  than  those  which 
aro  recently  acqnire<l.  II. 'nee,  a  long  jx'digree 
should  indicate  more  value  than  a  short  )>cdigree. 
487.  For  the  general  farmer,  it  is  unwise  to 
buy  a  herd  of  ]»ure-blood  stock,  unless  the  object 
is  to  brce(l  pure-blood  stock  for  sale.  The  breed- 
ing of  pure-blood  animals  is  a  business  l)y  itself, 
ami  few  persons  are  competent  to  succeed  in  it. 
But  evei-y  farmer  can  greatly  improve  his  stock, 
if  he  starts  with  and  constantly  uses  a  good  j>ure- 
blood  male  mated  with  good  native  females. 
From  tlie  gra<les  so  produced  improvement  will 
bo  rapid  and  sure  if  tho  poorest  are  constantly 
Fold  and  only  the  best   bre(l  from. 

2.     ]]'hcre  Stork-raisintj  Is  Advisahlp. 

4R*^.  Having  now  i-onsideied  some  »>f  the 
principles  involved  in  securing  good  stock,  we 
may  next  inquire  in  what  regions  and  under 
what  conditio!is  it  can  l>e  raised  profitably, 
liive-stock  raising  is  particularly  advantageous 
on  the  cheap,  unoccupied  and  imcultivable  lands 
of  the  West  and  South.      In  those  region.«<,  stock 


264  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

must  depend  largely  or  entirely  on  the  natural 
forage,  which  is  sometimes  good  and  sometimes 
extremely  poor  and  meager.  It  may  require  ten  • 
to  twenty  acres  to  support  a  single  cow  or  steer 
for  a  year.  If  the  "range"  is  eaten  off  closely 
during  the  summer,  the  animals  perish  in  the 
winter.  In  the  dry  and  nearly  snowless  districts 
of  the  West,  animals  may  subsist  in  the  winter 
on  the  mature  dead  grasses.  Since  the  rainfall 
is  light,  these  matured  grasses,  or  natural  hay, 
retain  most  of  their  nutrient  qualities. 

489.  In  narrow,  sheltered  northern  valleys 
surrounded  by  grass -covered,  rolling  hillsides, 
where  the  cereals  cannot  be  raised  to  advantage, 
live-stock  finds  congenial  surroundings.  In  such 
regions:,  for  many  years,  was  the  center  and 
home  of  the  dairy  industries.  Within  the  last 
twenty  years  the  areas  in  which  butter,  cheese 
and  milk  have  been  produced  in  large  quantities 
for  city  consumption  and  export  have  become 
greatly  enlarged  and  multiplied  ;  and  many 
whole  farms,  formerly  used  for  the  production 
of  the  cereals,  especially  of  maize,  are  now  con- 
ducted as  dairy  farms. 

490.  On  high-priced  land  near  the  markets, 
comparatively  little  live-stock  will  be  kept,  since 
the  manures  necessary  to  keep  the  soil  fairly 
productive  and  filled  with  humus  can  be  easily 
brought    from     the     cities.      The     teams    which 


THE     MANAiiK.MKNT     OF     STOCK  265 

transport  the  products  to  the  markets  ot'teu 
return  lojided  witli  the  refuse  of  the  city  stables. 
There  is  little  opportunity  for  the  produ<'tion  of 
live-stock  on  the  market -j^arden  farm.  Wln're 
intensive  a.irrifulture  (11 1«)  is  carried  on,  a  few 
animals  to  consume  the  refuse,  in  addition  to 
the  ''work  stock,"  may  he  kept  to  advantaj^^e. 
Swine  are  often  a  useful  adjunct  to  market- 
garden   farms. 

4I>1.  Hut  perhajts  tlie  place  aliovr  all  others 
wliere  live-stock  finds  the  best  conditi<nis,  and 
where  it  is  most  likt'ly  to  he  improvrd  from 
jreneration  to  generation,  is  uj«»n  the  ii«-li,  level 
farms  which  are  adai)ted  to  many  kinds  of 
crops.  Lands  which  are  ca{)al)h»  of  prodm-ing 
cereals,  irrasses,  fruits,  veijetahles,  Howei's  and 
animals  should  !»••  pri/.f*!  liii,^hiy.  On  such  lands 
is  ofTen'd  th>»  greatest  ojijiortunity  for  the  high- 
est agriculture.  I )i versified  agriculture,  with  one 
or  two  somewhat  specialize*!  crops,  leads  to 
stea<ly  and  certain  income,  gives  opportunity 
for  furnishing  coutinuous  employment  for  both 
men  and  teams,  and  in  all  ways  tends  to 
economy  of  time   and   etTort   {'.\^)4n). 

3.   IIuic   Mich   Stork   M'li/    //'    h'f'pt 

402.  Cheap  trnnsiM^rtation,  refrigerator  can*, 
and    the   silo,   have   made   it   possible  to   j»rodnce 


266  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

and  send  dairy  products  to  market  from  dis- 
tricts far  removed  from  the  great  cities  and  the 
seaboard,  at  a  profit.  On  the  rich  prairies, 
wherever  maize  will  flourish,  one  thousand 
pounds  of  live  stock,  or  one  large  dairy  cow, 
may  be  carried  for  every  two  acres  of  fairly 
good  arable  land.  In  some  cases,  some  extra 
concentrated  foods  may  be  required,  if  the  ani- 
mals are  kept  up  to  their  full  capacity  for 
growth  and  production. 

493.  On  farms  of  the  East,  where  a  large 
percentage  of  the  land  must  be  devoted  to  per- 
manent pasture  because  it  is  steep  and  stony, 
one  animal  of  one  thousand  pounds  to  two  acres 
cannot  be  carried  unless  considerable  concen- 
trated food  is  purchased. 

494.  There  are  two  methods  respecting  the 
number  of  animals  to  be  kept  on  a  farm.  One 
method  requires  that  food  be  bought.  The  other 
method  is  to  keep  only  so  many  animals  as  can 
be  maintained  by  home  resources.  On  lands 
naturally  fertile,  and  on  those  which  have  been 
wisely  managed,  this  latter  practice  is  to  be 
commended.  It  may  be  said,  however,  that  if 
the  stockman  can  secure  increased  profits  by 
risking  something  for  extra  food,  he  should  take 
advantage  of  it ;  but  most  farmers  had  better 
not  assume  many  risks. 

495.  We  may  now  speak  of   the   practice  of 


THK     MANAUKMtINT     OK     STOCK  267 

purcliusiiig  most  of  tin'  jiijraiii  or  other  I'oiict.'ii- 
tratod  food  whi«li  is  roqiiind.  Tht'so  foods  are 
mostly  by-products  (437^0,  sucli  as  bran,  oil- 
meal,  cottou-sood  meal,  and  tlio  *]:luton  nioals. 
It  is  said  tiiat  it  is  choaiKT  to  j)urt'iiaso  (^on- 
eontrated  foods  than  to  ]>i-o(hi('t>  tlifiii  on  the 
farm,  and  miu'li  stress  is  hiiil  on  tlio  resultant 
plant -food  or  manure  which  is  secured  from 
feedinc:   these    ])roducts. 

4!><).  A  ton  of  wjieat  bran  contains  tln'  fol- 
lowinur  amounts  of  ])otential  plant-food  in  every 
tliousand  pounds  : 

2G.7  M's.   nitropen 

28.9    "     phosphoric  acid 

16.1     "     potash 

This  would  seem  to  indicate  that  a  thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would  be  worth,  for  manurial 
purposes,  $r).r)7,  or  $11.14  per  ton — comi)Uiin^ 
the  nitrogen  at  V2  cents,  phosphoric  acid  at  6 
cents   and    the   potash   at  4   cents   per   pound. 

41)7.  If  the  bran  is  fed  to  milch  cows,  it  is 
estimated  that  not  less  than  ."iO  per  cent  of  the 
platit-food  constituents  of  the  food  will  lie  found 
in  the  manure.  If  this  be  so,  then  the  manure 
which  is  the  result  of  feeding  one  thousand 
pounds  of  bran  would  bo  worth  $'J.79,  or  from 
feedinir  a  ton  of  bran,  sfr).;').'^.  If  the  bran  be 
fed  to  aninuils  that  neither  piin  nor  lose,  and 
are   not  producing  milk   or   other   products,  then 


268  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 

nearly  all    of   the    manurial    constituents    of    the 
food  are  found  in  the  excrements. 

498.  This  practice  of  purchasing  food  would 
appear  to  be  wise  on  a  farm  poorly  supplied 
with  plant- food.  It  may  be  assumed  that  the 
increase  in  growth,  or  the  products  secured  from 
the  animals  which  consume  these  purchased 
foods,  would  equal  or  exceed  the  cost  of  such 
foods.  If  so,  the  value  of  the  excrements  would 
be  clear  additional  profit. 

499.  In  practice,  however,  it  is  found  that 
the  purchase  of  these  supplemental  foods  be- 
comes necessary  largely  because  a  wise  use  has 
not  been  made  of  the  land.  If  need  of  these 
purchased  foods  arises  because  but  a  half  crop 
is  secured  instead  of  a  full  one,  then  greater 
attention  should  be  given  to  making  the  land 
more  productive.  In  many  cases,  the  purchased 
foods  are  required  because  the  production  of 
grasses  and  the  other  forage  plants  has  been 
neglected.  Full  crops  and  wisely  purchased 
concentrated  foods  lead  directly  to  the  im- 
provement of  animals  and  land,  and,  therefore, 
to  permanent  prosperity. 

500.  When  the  coarser  products  are  used 
for  food  and  bedding,  and  a  goodly  portion  of 
the  grains  are  fed  at  home,  it  is  possible,  with 
care,  to  return  to  the  fields  three -fourths  of  all 
the  plant -food  which  is  removed  from  the  fields 


THK     MANAlJKMKNT     (»K     STOCK  269 

to  the  barns  in  tlio  crops.  Tlic  case  with  which 
a  farm  may  ho  maintainctl  on  a  hi«rli  phinc  of 
protluctivcuess  wlicn  animals  arc  made  promi- 
nent, and  tlic  dillicnlty  of  maintaining^  hij^li 
prodnctivity  wlicn  tiicy  art'  wantinj^,  slionld 
emphasizo  th<'  part  whi<'h  the  animal  j^hiys  in 
seeurinj::  tin-   best  results. 

4.    Th(    Cure  of   Stork 
4a.  Housinij 

501.  Every  ciTort  should  be  exerted  to  make 
th<>  animals  comfortable.  Otherwise,  tliey  eaiinot 
<lo  their  best.  Animals,  like  ])eo]»le,  are  most 
useful  when  they  are  hajipy.  Provide  them 
pood  (juarters.  As  to  the  style  and  kind  of 
barns,  it  matters  litth'  so  loni:  as  the  desired 
results  ari»  secured. 

r)i»"J.  Animals  need  much  air.  A  sinjxle  ••ow 
requires  in  twenty-four  hours  3,125  cubic  feet; 
that  is,  all  of  the  air  which  would  be  contained 
in  a  box-stall  about  18  feet  by  \7X  f<"<^t  by  10 
feet,  if  she  has  u  full  supply.  As  a  matter  of 
practice,  however,  a  cow  is  all<tw«'d  about  400 
cubic  feet  of  air.  Twice  as  nmch  air  space 
should  be  provided  in  the  horse  stable  as  in  the 
cow  stable. 

503.  In  the  barn,  free  circulation  of  air  is 
restricted  ;  therefore,  provision  should  be  made 
for  ventilation.     Large  amounts  of  air  introdu<MMt 


270  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

at  few  points  create  dangerous  drafts.  Air 
should  be  taken  into  and  removed  from  the 
stable  in  many  small  streams.  If  the  stable  is 
over -ventilated,  it  may  become  too  cold.  If  at 
least  one  cubic  foot  of  air  space  is  allowed  in 
the  stable  for  each  pound  of  live  animal  kept 
in  it,  the  air  will  not  have  to  be  changed  so 
often  as  when  the  animals  are  so  crowded, — as 
is  often  the  case,— that  only  one -half  to  one- 
fourth  as  much  air  space  is  provided. 

504.  A  barn  with  a  wall  roughly  boarded, 
both  inside  and  outside,  and  the  space  filled  with 
straw,  furnishes  nearly  ideal  conditions,  since 
the  air  will  be  strained  gently  through  the 
straw.  This  ventilation  should  be  supplemented 
by  a  few  small,  easily  controlled  openings. 
Stables  should  not  be  kept  above  50  degrees 
nor  fall  below  32  degrees,  for  any  considerable 
length  of  time. 

505.  Abundant  provision  should  be  made  for 
the  ingress  of  light.  It  is  best  if  the  light  is 
admitted  at  the  rear  of  the  animal,  especially 
for  horses.  Provision  should  also  be  made  for 
temporarily  storing  the  excrements,  both  to  keep 
the  stable  clean  and  to  prevent  loss  of  the  val- 
uable constituents  of  the  manures.  No  excre- 
ments should  be  thrown  out  of  the  windows  or 
doors  of  the  stable  into  the  open  weather,  where 
they  form  a  nuisance  and  are  wasted  (120,  120a). 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OK     STOCK  J?  I 

46.    Water 

500.  All  nutriment  is  carried  into  the  system, 
and  tlirou«:jh  it,  by  means  of  water.  Since 
water  is  the  universal  carritT,  it  should  ever 
be  prt'st'ut  in  tho  animal  tissues  in  ([uantities 
sufficient  to  accomplish  the  desired  results.  Ani- 
mals should  have  water  at  least  twice  a  day. 

507.  Animals  fed  a  narrow  ration  (453)  re- 
quire more  water  than  those  which  are  fed  a 
wide  ration.  A  cow  in  milk  may  require  from 
fifty  to  eiirhty  pounds  of  water  daily.  If  the  water 
is  fr»M'zin«^  cold,  she  will  not  drink  freely  and  the 
production  of  milk  will  be  reduced.  Moreover, 
the  water  must  be  raised  to  the  temjierature  of 
the  body  by  the  heat  jrenerated  in  the  animal. 
This  may  require  a  part  of  the  en^MLcy  ''f  the  food 
which  mi«^lit  otherwise  have  been  turned  to  some 
us. 'fill  purpose.  If  water  at  a  temperature  of  about 
tJU  F.  is  i>rovided  for  the  stock  in  ('«)ld  weather,  the 
animals  will  not  only  enjoy  it,  but  will  not  re- 
fjuir»»  as  nuH'h  food  as  when  conijielled  to  drink 
water  near  the  freezing:  point.  In  lar^'e  herds, 
coal  may  well  be  substitutt'd  for  meal  in  heating 
the  drinking  water. 

■ir.   Food 

50S.  So  many  varieties  of  acceptable  cattle 
foods   can   be  secured    cheaply  in   America,   that 


272  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

full  opportunity  is  offered  for  selecting  those 
which  give  promise  of  producing  the  particular 
results  desired  in  any  given  case.  Animals 
which  are  used  continuously  at  hard  work 
require  a  wide  or  carbonaceous  ration  to  sup- 
ply energy.  Young  animals  do  best  on  a  narrow 
or  nitrogenous  ration.  Milch  cows  do  best  on 
intermediate  rations.  Cold  stables  imply  a  wide 
ration  ;  warm  stables,  narrow  rations.  The  food 
of  young  herbivorous  animals,  of  those  that 
work,  and  of  cows  in  milk,  may  be  made  up  of 
about  one  pound  of  grains  or  other  concentrated 
foods  to  three  pounds  of  roughage. 

509.  The  amount  of  the  ration  and  the  time 
of  feeding  should  be  governed  according  to  the 
character  and  habits  of  the  animal.  Horses 
should  be  fed  more  often  than  cattle  and 
sheep,  since  their  stomachs  are  relatively  small. 
Horses  are  inclined  to  eat  at  night.  Cattle, 
sheep  and  swine  seldom  eat  after  dark. 

510.  The  ration  for  any  one  meal  should  not 
be  so  liberal  as  to  injure  the  appetite  for  the 
one  that  follows.  Regularity  in  time  of  feeding, 
and  skill  in  presenting  the  food  in  an  appetizing 
form,  are  prime  factors  of  success. 

SUOGSSTIOI^S    ON   CHAPTER   XVI 

479a.  The  breeder  must  know  the  names  of  the  various 
parts  of  the   animal.     The  parts  of    a  dairy  eow  are  designated 


THK     MANAGEMENT     OK     STOCK 


27M 


in  Fig.  91,  wliich  represents  a  "typical  Ilolsteiii-Friesinn  cow:' 
1,  head  ;  2,  forehead  ;  3,  eyes  ;  4,  fnoo  ;  5,  inuz/le  ;  6,  oar  ;  7, 
born;  8,  neck;  D,  throat;  10,  shoulder;  11,  shoulder  tops,  or 
withers  ;  12,  chest  ;  13,  crops  ;  14,  chine  ;  1"),  back  ;  10,  loin  : 
17,  hip  or  hook  ;  18,  rump  ;  19,  thurl  or  pin-liono  ;  20,  quarter  : 
•Jl,  thJK'li  ;  22,   hock  ;    23,  leg  ;  24,  forearm  ;    2.').  hoof;  20,  fore- 


I*  <7  I* 


Fig.  01.     Uiagram  to  »how  the  parts  of  a  dairy  con-  to  which  dUtlnctiv* 
nAmoA  have  bt-cii  givvn. 

ribs;  27,  back  -  ribs  ;  28,  flank;  29.  belly;  30,  fore  -  flank  ;  31. 
Btiflo  ;  32,  tail  ;  33,  switch  ;  34,  utlder  ;  3.'>,  settiuff  of  tail  ;  36, 
quarters  of  udder  ;  37,  teats.  Tlio  dewlap  is  the  flap  of  the 
throat  below  9.  The  escutcheon  is  the  part  surroundinj:  the 
udder   b«>hitid.  on  which    the    hair   prows   upwards. 

4S0rt.  Following  is  the  ideal  of  a  dairy  cow  (compare  Fig. 
92) :  The  cow  should  have  a  small  head,  a  larg^e  mur.zle  aiul 
mouth,  a  clean-cut  nose  or  face,  that  is,  one  free  from  fleshy 
growth,  a  straif^ht  or  dishing;  forehead,  bright  prominent  eyes, 
and  a  thin,  long  n«'ck  and  nmderiite-sized  horns.  She  may  be 
from  on*  to  two  inches  lower  at  the  shoulders  than  at  the  hips. 
n»-r  fc«'iieral  form,  when  looked  at  from  the  side,  should  be 
wetlge- shape,  and  the  same  shape  should  be  apparent  when 
Tiewcd  from  the  roar.  The  shoulders  may  bo  thin,  lean  ancl 
lK)ny  ;  the  back  rather  long  ami  nigged  ;  the  loin  fairly  broad, 
but    not  too  broad,  or  the  animal  will  tend  to  put  on  b«'ef.     The 


274 


THE     PRINCIPLES     OP     AGRICULTURE 


hip  should  be  thrown  well  ahead,  which  gives  a  long,  powerful 
hind  quarter.  The  thighs,  of  necessity,  are  thin  ;  the  flank 
well  up  ;  the  hind  leg,  usually,  quite  crooked,  and  the  tail  long. 
If  the  tail  be  long,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  vertebrae  of  the 
back  bone  are  somewhat  loosely  united,  which  is  an  indication 
of  good  milking  qualities.  The  pony-built,  smooth-made,  short- 
bodied,  rotund  cow  is  seldom  a  good  milker.  The  teats  should 
be  sizeable  and  placed  wide  apart  ;  the  limbs  neither  too  small  nor 


Ir  ig.  \S'l.     An  iUfal  dairy  pow. 


too  large.  The  udder  should  not  be  very  pendent  or  loose,  and 
should  extend  well  to  the  rear,  also  well  to  the  front,  and  should 
have  a  broad  and  firm  setting  on  the  abdomen.  The  animal  should 
have  a  rugged,  rather  lean,  but  not  a  delicate  appearance.  All 
animals,  except  those  kept  for  speed,  should  have  rather  short 
limbs,  as  this  indicates,  to  some  extent,  constitution  and  power. 
It  will  be  noticed  (Fig.  92)  tliat  the  milk  veins,  which  extend 
from  the  udder  forward  on  the  abdomen,  are  large  and  promi- 
nent. These  indicate  that  the  cow  is  a  great  milker  or,  in  other 
words,  that  an  ample  supply  of  blood  has  been  furnished  to  the 
udder  by  the  arteries,  and  hence  a  large  amount  of  blood  must 


Tin:     MANACJKMHXT     OF     STOCK  '_'/.) 

be  returned  through  the  vi-iiis.  In  tinif,  tin*  Vfins  eiilur^jo  in 
ordtT  to  make  room  for  the  return  of  the  blood  from  the  udder. 
In  some  of  the  better  milking  strains,  these  large  veins  are  in- 
herited, nnd  can  be  seen  and  felt  on  young  animals  which  have 
never  given  milk. 

4S0b.  Contrast  the  ideal  points  nf  the  beef  animal.  This 
animal,  like  the  mileh  animal,  shuwiil  have  a  small  head  and 
linrns,  and  bo  light  in  the  throat -lateh.  If  the  neek,  legs  and 
tail  lie  removed  from  the  beef  animal,  the  body  is  almost  n  per- 
fect pnrallelogr:un.  The  neck  is  short  nnd  very  heavy  where 
it  is  set  onto  the  shoulder,  the  back  straight,  thighs  built  well 
out  at  the  rear,  and  thick.  The  body  of  the  animal  is  more 
rounded,  the  short  ribs  or  loin  is  broad,  the  flank  is  well 
down,  the  shoulders  are  heavy  and  well  covered  with  meat, 
the  floor  of  the  chest  broati,  which  j)laces  the  front  legs  wide 
apart.  The  whole  structure  of  the  animal  indicates  slowness  of 
motion,  quietness,  and  a  disposition  to  lay  on  flesh  and  fat,  or 
in  otli.  r  words,  to  be  stdfish.  No  milk  veins  ajipear,  the  tail 
is  shorter  than  the  milch  cow's,  and  the  receptacle  for  milk 
small.  As  A  rule,  the  beef  animal  has  a  softer  and  more  velvety 
touch  than  the  dairy  animal,  since  the  one  is  usually  fat  and  the 
other  lean.  A  strong,  low  brisket  (the  banging  part  between  the 
fore  legs)  is  desired,  not  because  the  flesh  of  it  is  good,  for  it 
is  quite  inferior,  but  because  it  is  an  outwanl  indication  of  su- 
perior feeding  qualities.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  dairy 
cow  the  brisket  is  prominent,  but  thin.  It  indicates  good  feed- 
i:u'  q  1  ilifies  :  that  is,  a  good  appetite  and  power  to  digest  and 
ftx-ui  :  .to  food.  True,  jt  seems  to  have  no  direct  oonnectiou 
•  with  the  productioD  of  milk,  but  animals  which  are  markedly 
deficient  in  brisket  and  thin  in  the  waist  usually  have  delicate 
constitutions  and  precarious  app<'titos. 

4S0«.  A  moilerately  thick,  elastic  skin  and  soft,  velvety  hair 
are  much  desirc'd,  not  only  in  cattle  but  in  horses.  A  thin  or 
pnpfTV  •<  ■  H  lock  of  constitution.     A  thick.  Inelastic  skin 

denotes    .  veneSMin  the  production  of  either  milk  or  beef. 

4S0«/.  With  tiiese  ideals  for  cattle,  compare  some  of  th« 
points  of  excellence   in   •  trotting   borne  :     The   front    legs    b*Te 


276  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

a  long,  low,  rhythmic  motion  when  the  animal  is  alert,  while  the 
hind  quarters  are  lowered  and  widened,  and  the  hind  legs,  with 
their  wide,  all-embracing  sweep,  show  how  and  where  the  great 
propelling  power  is  located. 

481o.  The  scoring  of  animals  is  a  matter  of  ideals.  The  person 
assumes  that  a  total  of  100  points  represents  the  perfect  animal, 
each  part  or  quality  being  represented  by  a  certain  figure. 
Any  animal  may  then  be  judged  (as  at  a  fair)  by  this  standard 
or  score.  Definite  scores  hnve  been  adopted  by  various  breeders' 
associations,  colleges,  etc.  For  illustration,  two  scoresare  now  given. 

4816.  Following  is  the  score  for  a  dairy  cow  used  by  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University: 

General  Appearance  : 

Weight,  estimated lbs.;   actiial lbs. 

Form,  wedge  shape  as  viewed  from  trout,  side  aud  top..        5 
Quality,  hair  fine,  soft  ;    skin    mellow,    loose,    medium 

thickness,  seeretion  yellow  ;    bone  clean 8 

Constitution,  vigorous,  not  inclined  to  beeflness 8 

Head  and  Neck  : 

Muzzle,  clean  cut  ;   mouth  large  ;   nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  large,  bright 1 

Face,  lean,  long  ;   quiet  expression 1 

Forehead,  broad,  slightly  dished 1 

£a?-s,  medium  size;   yellow  inside,  fine  texture 1 

Neck,  Que,  medium  length  ;  throat  clean  ;  light  dewlap..  2 

Foke'  and  Hind  Quarters  : 

Withers,  lean,  thin 1 

Shoulders,  light,  oblique  2 

Mips,  far  apart ;   level  between  hooks 2 

Rump,  long,  wide 2 

Pin-bones  or  thurls,  high,  wide  apart 1 

Thighs,  thin ,  long 2 

iefirs,  straight,  short  ;   shank  fine 1 

Tail,  loug,  slim  ;   fine  switch 1 

Body: 

Chest,  deep,  low  ;  girth  large 8 

Ribs,  broad,  well  sprung,  long,  wide  apart:  large  stomach.  5 

Bade,  lean,  straight,  chine  open 3 

Loin,  broad,  level 2 

Flank,  moderately  low 1 

Navel,  large 1 


THK     MAN.\(;K.MENT     ok     .slOCK  'J  <  . 

Milk  sn  KF.TiNO  Okoass  -. 

UdJer.  loug.  attarlietl  hl|{)i  uni  full  behind,  csteiiUiuK  fur 

in  fruiit  and  full :   giiiii  iim  fvi<n 15 

rddrr.  raparioiin,  tlexilde,  with  loose,  pliable  i>kin  covnrvU 

with  ahori.  fliio  hair 13 

Ttatt,  largr,  i-vcnly  plarod 4 

Jfi/i;  rritif,  larK«.  tortuouR.  Inrsp  milk  wella 0 

Eteutehfon,  Kpreading  over   thlKliM,  extending  bleh   niul 

wide  ;    large  thigli  ovals \i 

Total HH) 

4Slr.    The  score  for  a   l>cef  stoer  aa   iis«'d  l>y    Hit-  I)i'|i)irtui(Mit 
nf  Ai^riculttirf.   riiivcisily  of  Wi-scojisiii,  is  the  fnllowiiiu' : 

OeNEKAI.    Ari-EAKANTK    : 

ircii/Ar.  e!itimateO Iba.;    according  to  nge. .  ti 

form.  <>traight  top-lin«  and  under-line  :  deep,  bro.-iU.  low, 

»ct  »tyl^^h 8 

Qualtlu.  tirni  handling:    hairline;   pliable  akin;   dcnae 

bono  :   evenly  tlenhed 8 

Temperament,  qniet 5 

I1kai>  and  Nkk  : 

J/um{/,  mouth  large;   lips  thin  :    nostrils  large 1 

Eye*.  lari;e.  clear,  placid 1 

>'aer,  short  :   quiet  expr«aaloD 1 

Forthtad.  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  sixe,  line  textur* 1 

.%><■>,  thick,  short  :   throat  clean    V 

KOMC  QlAKTKRN : 

Shoulder  i'ein.  full J 

SAouldt-r.  covered  with  lie*  h,  coid  part  on  top;   anug 4 

ilrtjlrf.  advanced,  breast  wide 3 

Detclaii.  akin  n»t  too  l>Mi*e  and  drooping I 

i>tf<.  straight,  short ;  arm  full  ;   shank  fln«.  ainooib  ....  8 

Bonv  : 

Ckttt,  full.  de«p.  wide  :   girth  large  t   crop*  fu;)  8 

Rittt,  long,  arched,  thickijr  Ui  «>ied 0 

/tari.  broad,  straight   ....  6 

Loin,  thick,  broad       ...  i 

i*t<i<ii,  full,  even  with  under  lu<v   4 


278  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF     AGRICULTURE 

Hind  Quarters  : 

Hips,  smoothly  covered  ;     distance  apart   in    proportion 

with  other  parts 4 

Rump,  long,  even,  wide,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy 5 

Pin-bones,  not  prominent,  far  apart  3 

Thighs,  full 3 

Twist,  deep,  plump 4 

Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness - 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  flue,  smooth 3 

Total 100 


486a.  A  correct,  long  pedigree  is  also  evidence  that  no 
crosses  outside  of  the  breed  have  been  made  within  the  time 
covered  by  the  record.  Then  the  longer  the  pedigree,  the  longer 
the  time  which  has  elapsed  since  the  breed  was  fornicd.  Many 
breeds,  as  Shropshires,  Berkshires  and  the  like,  start  from  mixed- 
blood  animals  more  or  less  remote.  The  term  "pure  breed" 
simph"  means  that  a  breed  of  animals  has  been  bred  so  long 
within  the  variety  that  a  fair  degree  of  uniformity  in  all  lead- 
ing characteristics  has  been  secured,  and  power  acquired  to 
transmit  the  leading  qualities  with  a  fair  degree  of  certainty. 

487a.  If  the  farmer  has  a  dairy,  let  him  resolve  to  breed 
from  no  animal  which  gives  less  than  4,000  pounds  of  milk  a 
year.  Animals  which  give  less  than  this  amount  are  often 
kept  at  a  loss,  and  they  should  be  disposed  of  at  once.  Every 
dairyman  should  also  test  his  milk  for  richness,  by  means  of 
the  Babcock  test.  Read  Wing's  "Milk  and  Its  Products,"  for 
instruction  on  the  Babcock  milk  test,  and  other  matters  of 
dairying. 

491a.  There  is  a  marked  tendency  for  farmers  to  run  too 
much  to  one  thing,  following  the  lead  of  some  person  who  has 
been  successful  in  a  particular  line.  In  some  localities  in  the 
East,  especially  in  the  great  grape  and  hop  districts,  the  ill 
effects  of  specialized  agriculture  are  often  seen.  When  grapes 
and  hops  bring  prices  which  barely  pay  for  picking  them,  —  and 
this  not  infrequently  occurs, — the  farmer  becomes  discouraged, 
neglects  his  plantations,  and  when  prices  rise  to  the  point  where 
profits  should   be   received,   the  yield    per   acre    falls   so    low  by 


THE     MANAGEMENT     OF     f<T()CK  -TD 

reason  of  the  neglect  that  no  finaiuMnl  rocovcry  is  i>ii«(sible.  In 
these  distriots  live  stock  shouid  pliiy  nn  itnpDrtant  part. 

491ft.  It  is  found  that  wluTPVor  tho  ar«<as  of  Hpi-eial  cmpH 
aro  rt'strioted,  and  rotation  and  mixed  husbandry  ar»«  not 
seriously  disturbfd,  fair  profits  are  realized  every  year,  ami  tho 
avernpe  yields  of  prapes  or  hops  per  aere  are  much  al>ove  the 
average  of  tho  laijje  plantations.  Specialization  is  seen  to  have 
a  marked,  deleterious  eflTeot  on  the  youth  of  the  districts  where 
it  is  practiced  in  a  larpo  way,  and  often  on  the  productivity  of 
the  soil  as  well.  Tho  introduction  of  domestic  animals  in  con- 
siderable numbers  tends  to  change  all  this.  Moreover,  the  ele- 
vating effect  of  coming  into  immediate  contact  with  animal  life, 
especially  on  the  young,  should  be  understood  and  priz<  d. 

500<i.  A  crop  of  50  bushels  of  maize  per  acre,  and  the 
accompanying  stalks,  contains  about  64  pounds  of  nitrogen,  24 
pounds  of  phosphoric  acid  and  30  pounds  of  potash.  If,  when 
fed  to  animals,  only  one-half  of  the  plant-food  removed  by  the 
crop  is  returned,  then  hut  32  pounds  of  nitrogen,  12  pounds  of 
phosphoric  acid,  and  H  |>ounds  of  potash  will  be  lost  from  each 
acre.  When  clover  is  in  tho  rotation,  it  will  restore  most  of 
this  lost  nitrogen.  The  plant  precedes  the  animal.  He  who 
has  mastered  tho  art  of  producing  plants  successfully  has 
learned  more  than  half  of  agriculture. 

TyOOh.  Animals  play  Mx-h  an  important  part  in  maintaining 
the  productivity  of  the  land  that  he  who  farms  without  giving 
thero  a  prominent  place  should  be  able  to  furnish  good  reasons 
for  so  doing. 

5IOfi.  Kemember  that  thoughtful  care,  solicitude,  love  for 
lue  anininl,  and  timely  attention  to  the  many  details,  play  an 
important  part  in  animal  industrj*.  That  which  is  >:!iined  by 
superior  breeding,  food  and  comfortable  buildin;,'s  may  be 
partly  lost  if  kindness  is  wanting.  "  S|M>ak  to  the  animals  as 
you  should  to  •  lady,  kindly." 


Fig.  93.   The  head  of  the  flock. 


GLOSSARY 

(.Vum^<^»  Tfftr  to  Paragraphs.) 

.■Eithttie.     AppeaMti);  to  tht-  faculties  of  taste,  as  of  color,  tnnslc. 

Agrieiitluif.     Karmiiiir.     I,   l<i. 

AlbHrnin.     A  nitroKt-'iioux  ori;iinic  compound,  present  tn  rx)tti   |>lniitM  and 

KiiiiUBU.     370,  442(1. 
Alimrnl.     Food. 

AHmtutnry  ennal.     Tho  dige?<tivi*  clianii"!  or  tract.     ;{77. 
Amrltoralt.     To  Improve. 
Amtnablt.     Open  to,  li.tlile  to  :  n  loose  soil  is  amena1>1i'  to  tlu-  action  of 

•ir.  but  a  wry  liurd  soil  is  not. 
AmtndiH'nt.     A  substance  which  influences  the  texture  rather  than  the 

plantfiHxl  of  the  soil.     58. 
Annunl.     A  plant  which  lives  only  one  year.      Means  ami   piirwectls  art- 

examples. 
Antitepiif.     A  substance  which  kills  (jerms  or  microbes.     284<i,  387n. 
Availahlf.     Capable  of  bi-ing  used  :   u«able.     4.'lfc. 
Aiit.     Antrle  al>ove  the  Junction  of  n  leaf-stall(,  flower-stalk,  or  branch 

with  its  parent  sirni. 
Bitnniiil.     A  pl.ant  which  lives  two  years.     It  usually  l)loonis  and  seeds 

the  second  year.     Mulleins  nnil  parsnips  are  examples. 
liotttHjf.     Knowledge  and  science  of  plants.      |«'i. 
BrtakiHij   dntcH.      Said    of    hard  aoils  when    they   become    mellow  and 

crumbly. 
nnddiHij.     A   klml  of  (n^ftinir,  in  which   the  cion  or  bud  Is  very  short, 

and  inserted  under  tho  bark  or  on  the  woml  of  the  stock  (not  into 

tlie  wihhI). 
/»y;)r. ..?>!<•/.     A  product  Incidentally  resulting  from  the  manufacture  tif 

SMtiicthini;  else.     A'Xia,  A'i't. 
C'iIIum.     The  healinK  tissue  on  a  wound.     2.'t4. 
Capillary.     Hair  like.     Said  of   %'ery  thin  or  fine  channels,  especially 

those  In  which  water  moves  by  the  forre  of  capillary  altrartlon. 
Carb-tk^Hrtilt.      An    oriranlc  or  earbon    compound.  In  which   bydroiren 

and   nxyiren  occur  in  the    same    proportions  a*  they  do   In   water. 

Sufar,  atareb,  woo«ly  0ber  are  carbobydratea.     197ia. 

(281) 


282  GLOSSARY 

Carbon.  A  gas,  C,  existing  in  small  qu.ntities  in  the  atmosphere  ; 
also  in  a  solid  form  in  charcoal  and  the  diamond. 

Carbon  dioxid.     A  gas,  CO2;  carbonic  acid  gas. 

Carnivorous.     Feeding  on  flesh.     174. 

Casein.  Milk  curd,  the  chief  albuminoid  of  milk.  It  is  the  main  con- 
stituent of  cheese.     370. 

Catch-crop.  A  crop  grown  between  plants  of  a  regular  crop,  in  the 
interval  of  time  between  regular  crops.     109. 

Cereal.  A  grain  belonging  to  the  grass  family,  as  wheat,  maize,  rice, 
oats,  barley,  rye. 

Chetni&try.     That  science  which  treats  of  composition   of  matter.     18 

Chlorophyll.     The  green  matter  in  plants.     198,  198a. 

Cion.  A  part  of  a  plant  inserted  in  a  plant,  with  the  intention  that  it 
shall  grow.     236. 

Climatologii.  Knowledge  and  science  of  climate.  It  includes  the 
science  of  weather  (local  climate)  or  meteorologj-.     19. 

Coagulate.    To  curdle;  as  of  milk. 

Coldfrume.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  heated  by  the 
sun,  and  in  which  plants  are  grown  or  kept. 

Coming  true.     Reproducing  the  variety.     21o(i ,  29.1. 

Comminute.     To  break  up,  fine,  pulverize.     29a. 

Compost.     Rotted  organic  matter.     34n. 

Conservation.     Saving.     82. 

Cover-crop.  A  catch-crop  which  is  designed  to  cover  the  soil  in  fall, 
winter  and  early  spring.     109,  116. 

Cultivator.  An  implement  which  prepares  the  surface  of  the  ground 
by  turning  it  or  lifting  it.  The  spring-tooth  harrow  is  really  a 
cultivator. 

Cutting.  A  part  ot  a  plant  inserted  in  soil  or  other  medium  with  the 
intention  that  it  shall  grow  and  make  another  plant;  slip.     231. 

Dehorning.     Removing  the  horns  from  animals.     r20a. 

Dependent .  Depending  on  other  means  than  its  own,  as  on  the  con- 
ditions in  which  it  lives.     182. 

Denude.     To  strip,  to  make  bare,  to  wash  away.     266. 

Dormant.     Latent,  sleeping,  not  active. 

Drought.    A  very  dry  spell  or  season. 

Ecology.  The  science  which  treats  of  the  inter-relationships  of  ani- 
mals and  plants,  and  of  their  relations  to  their  environments. 
The  study  of  the  habits  and  modes  of  life  of  organisms.  The 
migrations  of  birds,  distribution  of  plants,  nesting  habits  of 
bumble-bees,  are  subjects  of  ecology.    Often  spelled  oecology.    I60. 


(1L0PSARY  2H3 

Eltmrnt.     A  substuncc  which  is  composed  of  nothing  else;  an  original 

form  of  nj:ittfr.     I2~a. 
Emulsion.     A  mure   or   less    pcrmnncnt  and    difTusililv    combination  of 

oils  or  fats  and  water.     39i>,  39Ga. 
Entrgy.     i'owf r  ;  force.     Every  moving,  chnntjinK  or  vibrating  binly  or 

agfiit   expends   energy  or  force  ;    and   this   force   is   transferred  to 

some  other  body  or  form,  for  notliiiig  is  lost.     The  energy  of  sun 

light    is    expressed   in   hent,    light,    and   other   wuys.      The   eni-rgy 

that    is  rc-qiiired    to    produce  the  food    is    expciideil    as    l>oiljly   hi-at. 

muscular  or  nervous  energy,  mid   in  othi-r  ways. 
KnIomoliHjy.     Science  ot  Insects. 
EMi-iroHiHtnl.     The  surrouiulings  of  an  animal  or  plant, — tin-  ounditioiiit 

in    which    It    lives.     Comprises   climaif.    soil,     moisturt*.     altitude. 

etc.      166. 
Eroiion.     Wearing  away;  denudation. 
Evolution.     The  doctrine  that  the  present  kinds  of  plants  and  uiiimaN 

are  derived,  or  evcdved,  from  other  previous  kiiuls. 
E-fietiun.     A   secn-tion   w-hich  Is  of  no  further  use   to  the  animal   or 

plant,  and  which  is  thrown  off  ;    as  sweat.     '.iCuUi. 
ExlmnroHt.     External  ;  from  the  outside  ;  foreign  to.     .'>4,  .'I'J. 
Extrintie.      Secondary,    external,    from    the  outside.       The   apple    has 

extrinsic  "alue,— that  is,  it  is  valuable  as  n  marketable  or  mi)ney 

getting  article,  aside  from  Its  value  as  nourishnu-nt.     See  intrinsic. 
Eye.     A  bud  ;  a  cutting  of  a  single  bud.     2.'t.*i. 
t'armpnietiee.     Tbo   management  of    the    farm  ;     the    practirul   side  of 

farming.      It  coniprisf>s   the    handling   of   land,   tools,   plants,    ani 

niuN.     II. 
Farm*ltad.     A   farm  home  or  establishment. 
Fftdiitj  Minn'iiird.      The  Ideal  amount  and  quality  of  food  for  a  given 

I  iirj..>«c        40*. 

yrrm--ii'.iiion.  The  procefca  by  means  of  which  starch,  sugar,  casein, 
anil  other  organic  substances  are  changed  or  broken  ilown,  and 
new  combiiiatinns  made.  It  Is  usually  atti-nded  with  heat  and  the 
giving  off  of   gas. 

Etrtmty.     Ability  of  the  land  to  produce  plants.     105. 

Pihtr.     Elongated  or  string  like  tissues. 

Fibrin.      An    Insoluble    but   digestible    albuminoid.       It    is    present    In 

b|rK>d-clot9. 

Ftoteiilalt.     To  make  granular  or  crumbly.     Mn. 
Fod-ifr.     Food  for  animals.     428. 

Forxtijr  i'lnnts  which  are  fed  to  animals  in  their  natural  condition,  or 
when  mervly  dried.     J30. 


284  GLOSSARY 

Free  water.  Standing  water,  or  that  moving  under  the  influence  of 
gravitation,  as  distinguished  from  that  held  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion.    64,  Go,  78. 

Function.  The  particular  or  appointed  action  of  any  organ  or  part. 
The  function  of  the  eye  is  vision  ;  that  of  the  heart  is  distributing 
the  blood  ;  that  of  the  root  is  taiiing  in  food.  What  an  organ  does. 

Fungicide.     A  substance  which  kills  fungi.     298. 

Furrow.     The  trench  left  by  the  plow.     91a.  [91,   91a. 

Furrow-slice.     The  strip  of   earth  which   is   turned  over  by  the  plow. 

Gang-plow.  An  implement  comprising  two  or  more  individual  plows. 
Figs.  04,  05. 

Geology.     The  science  of  the  formation  of  the  crust  of  the  earth.     20. 

Germ.     See  micro-organism. 

Glacier.     A  slowly  moving   field    or   mass    of    ice  ;    a    frozen    stream. 

Gla>ids.     Secreting  organs.     3036.  [39,  39«. 

Gluten.     The  soluble  nitrogenous  part  of  flour.     370. 

Glycogen.  A  starch,  or  starch-like  material,  formed  in  the  animal  body, 
and  from  which  sugar  is  formed.     3G4,  304". 

Grafting.     The  practice  of  inserting  a  cion  or  bud  in  a  plant.     230. 

Grazing.     Pasturing. 

Green-crops.  Crops  designed  to  be  plowed  under  for  the  purpose  o( 
improving  the  soil.     74,  109. 

Rard-pan.     Hard,  retentive  si;bsoil.     94rt. 

Harrow.  An  implement  which  pulverizes  the  surface  of  the  ground 
without  inverting  it  or  lifting  it. 

ifeading-in.     Cutting  back  the  tips  or  ends  of  branches.     288. 

Heavy  .soils.  Soils  which  are  hard,  dense,  lumpy,  or  those  which  are 
very  fertile.     Does  not  refer  to  weight. 

Herbivorous.     Feeding  on  plants.     174. 

Horticulture.  Arts  and  sciences  pertaining  to  cultivation  of  fruits,  flow- 
ers, vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants.   It  is  part  of  agriculture.  9,  9e. 

Host.  An  animal  or  plant  on  which  a  parasite  lives.  2926.  A  plant  or 
animal  which  makes  it  possible  for  another  plant  or  auimal  to  grow 
alongside  of  it.     312(/. 

Hotbed.  A  glass-covered  box  or  frame  which  is  artificially  heated 
(usually  by  means  of  fermenting  manure),  and  in  which  plants  are 
grown. 

Humus.      Vegetable   mold.      It  may  contain   the   remains   of   animals. 

Husbandry.     Farming.     ]«.  [33,  33a. 

Hygroscopic.     Holding  moisture  r-s  a  film  on  the  surface.     04,  07. 

Inhibit.     To  prevent  or  check.     Ib8. 


GLOSSARY  JS') 

/norganie.     Mntie.-  whirh  has  not  \n-vi\  clnlxirnloil  into  other  coiniiouinU 

by   pIniitA  or  nnimnls.      All  iiiiiuTuN  are   iiior(;iiiur  ;    also,  iiir  uud 

wnttT.     2.'i6. 
Inaaiiitilion.     Mixing;  with  snlivn. 
lusierliciilt.     A  stibMaiii-c  whii-h  killii  inst'fts.     2y.">. 
jHlemode.     Ill  phiiits,  tlie  space  ln-t\vi*fn  tiic  joints.     205. 
Intrr-lilliige.     TilliiKO  butwrt-n  liliuit,"*.     8."i,  8.j<i. 
JnlrtHMie.     IViMilJHr  to,   internal,   front    the   insitlo.     The  apple   has   in 

trinsic  vnliiv,— that  Is,  it  is  valuable  of  itself,  to    eat,   wholly  a.tido 

from  the  money  it  brint;s.     Sjo  extrinsic. 
I rrignlioii.     The   practice  of   artificially  supplying  plants   with    water. 

especially  on  n  lartfc  scale.     6. \  C.T<i. 
Irritable.     In   plants,   responding  to  external   agents,   as   to  wind,  sun- 
shine, h«>nt.      \K\,  208. 
Larvit  (plural  larrtr).     The  worm-like  stapo  of  insects. 
Latfrr.     A  part  of  »  plant  which  is  made  tu  take  root  while  still  attached 

to  tho  parent,  but  which    is  intended  to  lie  severeil  and  to  make  an 

indepemlent  plant.     229. 
Lrachiiig.     Passini;  throuifh,  and  Roini;  off  in  drainage  waters. 
L<gHiHinou».     BelonKiiiK  to  the  Lei^uminoMP  or  pea  family.      110. 
LirhfH.     A    low   form   of    plant-life,    allied    to   aliro?   and    funei-     The 

plant  iMvIy  is  usually  prayish  or  <lullc<»lored  anil   <lryisli.     On  tree 

tnniks  it  is  usually  called  "moss."    2y<».  V'wi.  .3. 
Light  toilg.     Soils  which  are  very  b'Oso  and  open,  or  which    are  poor 

\n  plont-fo«Mi.     Poen  not  refer  to  weiirht. 
Uarking  out.     MnkinK  lioes  or  marks  on  the  land   to  facilitate  sowing 

or  planting.     lO.!. 
Urdium.     A   fundamental   or  underlying  substance:    soil    is   a   medium 

(or  holding  water.    An  agent:  a  root  is  a  medium  for  transporting 

water.     40. 
Uirrobt.     S*««  micro-organism. 
Mtero  orgnHitm.    A   microscopic  organism.     It  may  be  either  plant  or 

animal;    l>ut   the   terra    ia   commonly  restricted    to    bacteria  or   ml 

crolx-s  or  eenns,  which  ar«  iiow  classed  with  plants.     3.Vf». 
MiHerttl   tnattrr.     Earthy  matter, — iron,  i>ota*ili.  lime,  phosphonis,  etr 
JUotdboard.     The  curved   part  of  the   plow  which  inverts  the   furrow- 

•  lire.     01. 
ilHlfk.    A  cover  on  the  soil.    S3. 

,\'>iinie.     A  compoun«l  In  which  NO,   l«  combined  with  a  baae. 
StlrtficaliOH.     The  clian«;lng  of  nitrogen  Into  a  nitrate.     I.'l7. 
NitriU.    A  eonpotind  in  which  NOi  !•  eoniblne<l  with  a  r>aiie. 


286  GLOSSARY 

Nitrogen.      A    gas,    N,    comprising    approximately    four-fifths    of    the 

atmosphere. 
Nutrient.     Food;  aliment. 
Nutrition.     The  process  of  promoting  and  sustaining  growth  and  work 

of  animal  and  plant. 
Nutritive  ratio.     The  proportion  between  the   proteids  and   other  con- 
stituents in  a  food.     452. 
Optimum  temperature.     The  best  temperature   for  the   performance   of 

a  certain  function.  201,  321. 
Organic.  Pertaining  to  organisms, — that  is,  to  animals  and  plants- 
Organic  matter  has  been  elaborated  or  compounded  of  inorganic 
materials,  and  exists  in  nature  only  as  it  is  made  by  animals  or 
plants.  Flesh,  wood,  starch,  protoplasm,  sugar,  are  examples. 
The  chemist  defines  organic  matter  as  that  which  contains  carbon 
in  combination  with  other  elements.  25,  256,  32. 
Ornithology.     Science  of  birds. 

Osmosis.     The  movement  of  liqui  Is  thrcjugh  membrane^.     1H4,  185. 
Oxygen.    A  gas,  O,  comprising  about  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere. 
Palatable.     Of  good  or  pleasant  taste.     376,470. 
Particles  of  soil.     The  ultimate  or  finest  divisions  of  soil. 
Pedigree.     A  recorded  genealogy.     486. 
Peptone.     A  diffusible  and  soluble  compound  formed  from  nitrogenous 

substances  by  the  action  of  digestive  liquids.     389,  390. 
Perennial.     A  plant  which  lives  three  or  more  years.     Rhubarb,  apple 
trees  and  Canada  thistles  are  examples.  [143. 

Pliosphnie.     A   substance   containing  or  composed   of   phosphoric   acid. 
Photosynfhei  is.    Making  of  organic  matter  from  CO,  and  water  in  pres- 
ence ot  light.     198,  199. 
Physical.      Pertaining  to  the  body  or  structure   of    a  thing,  as  dis 
tinguished  from  its   life  or  its  spirit.     Pertaining  to  the   action   of 
inorganic  forces,  as  heat,  light,  electricity,  movement  of  water. 
Physiology.    The  science  of  life-process  or  of  functioning.     It  treats  of 

organs,  and  their  work  and  uses. 
Potential.      Possible  ;    latent.      Said  of   powers  which  may  be  brought 

into  action,  but  which  are  now  dormant.     42o. 
Precipitate.     The  sediment  resulting  from  chemical  action.     S90a. 
Prepotent,     Said  of  animals  which  have  the  power  of  perpetuating  their 

own  characteristics  to  a  striking  degree.     483. 
Protoplustyi.    A  very  complex  and  changeable  organic  nitrogenous  com- 
pound, present  in  all  living  things,  and  necessary  to  their  existence. 
It  is  the  living  matter  of  cells. 


liLOSSAKY  287 

Prolftd.     Albuiniiioid;  orirnnic  nltrogenouii compound.   44'-',  U'J<i,  4.'iO,4.11. 
Pniniiiij.       Kuiiioving     purt    of    a    plant    for    llio    bcttcrinenl    of    th« 

rt>iuuiuiiur.     2itf. 
PtotHiiiut.     A  prmluct  of  dccompoNitioD  of  dt-ad  tinsut'.     40yrt. 
Plyittin.     Tlio  ferment  in  sulnu.     380. 
Puddling.     Tho  conit-ntiug  toj^ithor  of  tho  particles  of  hoUs,  rondorlng 

tbfiu  hard  and  ntono-liko.     81. 
Ranga.     A  pasture,  particularly  one  of  large  extent.     488. 
NalioH.     Tho  mntrrial  ft-d  to  un  uiiininl. 
/itnnel.      The   diiff-^ttive    principlt*    derived    fnnn    the    fourth   or   true 

atoniach  of  ruminants  ;  or  tin*  dried  Htoniui'li  itself.     :iit-J6. 
lirlenlii't.     Holding,  retaining. 
Ittverlfd.     Said  of  phonphutes  wliieh  iirc   in  tlie  prooe.-ts   of    hecomintc 

in.ioluble.     I4r>. 
Roolnip.     The  tissue  covering  the  very  tiji  of  tho  jjrowinK  root.     2inj. 
Root  i>'isluraijf.     The  ureo  of  soil  particles  exposed  to  or  anienahle  to 

root  action.     'i'.Ui,  90. 
Rotation.     A  systeniatic  alternation  of  crops.     112,  :iO.">,  .ICVi. 
RoHghnijt .     FuraKe,  XW;   piii  lu-ulurl)  coarse  forage. 
SanitniiiiH.       I^ooking    after   the   hea!th,    especially  uiakint;  the  i-onili 

tioiis  Huoh  Ihut  disease  or  injury  is  prevented. 
Sap.     The  juice  or  liquid  contents  of  )d»nts.     '.'••Tn. 
SittHrttted.     F*ull  of  water,  so  that  it  cannot  hold  more. 
Searifif.     To  Kcratch  or  to  harrow  liehtly. 
StcrtlioH.     A  special  pro<luct  derive»l  from  the  blood  :  ns  sniivu,  gastric 

juice.     3KUt. 
Sted-brd.     The  earth  in  which  seeds  are  sown.     24.'ki. 
Sttdlihg.     A  plant  grown  from  seed,  and  not   changed  to  imother  kind 

by  graflini;  or  budding.     2416. 
Silieious.     Sandy. 
SItp      A  cutting. 

Soil.     Thai  part  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  in  wlilrh  plants  irrow.     24. 
Soiling.     Fee«ling  green  fresli  fonige,  ui  atuble  or  Held. 
Sport.     A  variety  or  form  which  appear*  suddenly,  or  is  %'ery  unlike  the 

typ«.     485. 
Stofk.    The  plant  into  which  a  don  is  >et.     236.     The  parentage  of  any 

ifroup  or  line  of  anituals  or  plants.     The  animal  tenants  of  a  fartn  ; 

lire  stock. 
Stomn.  tlomatt.     A  breathing-pore.     188,  188a. 
SMht-',l.     That    part   of    the    soil   which    lies   tielow  the  few   inches   of 

I'    ■    i^irated    and     pr<Mlurtive    surface    soil.       It    i«    usunlly    harder. 

ii«i.U'r  colored,  and  p^or^r  In  pUiit-food  tbaa  tb«  surface  soil. 


288  GLOSSARY 

Suhsoiling.     Breaking  up  the  subsoil.     97. 

Subsurface.     The  lower  part  of  the  surface  soil, — just  above  the  sub- 
soil.    250a. 
Siiperanuafed.     Past  its  usefulness. 
Superphosphate.      Sometimes  used  to    designate  available  phosphates. 

and  sometimes  to  designate  materials  which  contain  phosphate  but 

no  potash  or  nitrogen.     lA3a. 
Supersaturated.     More  than  saturated,  so  that  the  water  drains  away. 
Supplementary.     Secondary  ;  used  in  addition  to  something  else. 
Swine.    Hogs,  pigs. 
Tap-root.     A  root  which  runs  straight  downwards,   with  no  very  large 

branches.     Figs.  33,  79. 
Texture.   Of  soils,  the  size  of  the  ultimate  particles. 
Tillage.    Stirring  the  soil.    8^,  84a. 

Toxin.    A  poisonous  production  of  decomposition.    409a. 
Traininq.    Placinc  or  guirline  tlie  branches  of  a  plant.     278. 
Transpiration.    FussiiiE:  off  of  water  from  plants.    187. 
Trimming.     Removing   part  of  a  plant   to  improve   the  looks  or  man- 

ageableness  of  the  remainder.     278. 
Turbid.     Muddy,  cloudy. 
CTnder-drainage.     Drainage  from  below.     The  water  is  carried  through 

the  soil,  not  carried  off  on  the  surface.     57,  68. 
Urea.     A  waste  nitrogenous  compound  which   is  cast  out   through  the 

kidneys. 
Variation.     Modification  or  change  in  an  animal  or  plant.     The  coming 

in  of  new  forms  or  types.     Departure  from  the  normal  type. 
Viable.     Having  life;  capable  of  living  or  growing.     216. 
Vital.     Pertaining  to  life  or  living  things  :    vital   heat  is  the    heat  of 

an  animal  or  plant,  as  distinguished  from  the  heat  of  the  sun  or 

of  a  fire. 
Weed.     A  plant  which  is  not  wanted. 

Watersprout.     A  strong  and  usually  soft  shoot  arising  from  an  adven- 
titious or  dormant   bud, — outside   the  regular  place  and   order  of 

shoots.     280. 
Water-table.     That  part  of  the  soil  marked  by  the  upper  limit  of  the 

free  or  standing  water.     57,  57rj. 
Zoology.     Knowledge  and  science  of  animals.     17. 


sr(l(}KSTIONS    TO     HKADrXd  -  CLTUS 
AM)   TO   TEACUERS 

Tliis  book  lias  found  a  placf  \u  rea<liii.i!:-circlos. 
Tlio  t'ollowi!!!^  sugp'stioiis  oil  this  iiso  of  tli««  t«'.\t 
wt'iT  iiwulc  l»y  request  of  tlio  n'atliii<x-eiivles  of 
one  state,  and  they  are  reprodiieed  licre  for  the 
benefit  of  others  wlio  may  siinihirly  eiiijtloy  the 
bo(»k. 

In  the  production  of  its  wcaltli,  airri<'ulture 
operates  in  three  "j^reat  fields, — with  tii»'  soil,  the 
plant,  and  the  animal.  Although  aiile<i  at  fvcry 
point  hy  a  knowledge  of  other  subjects,  its  litial 
suecuss  rests  on  tiiese  bases,  and  tlicsc  arc  the 
fields  to  which  the  Principles  of  Agriculture 
gives  most  attention. 

Agriculture  is  often  sai"l  to  be  the  most  fun- 
damental and  most  useful  of  occupations,  since 
it  fecils  the  woild.  The  piovince  of  a  text-book 
of  agriculture  is  to  deal  with  the  original  i»ro- 
duction  of  agricultural  wealth  rather  than  with 
its  manufacture,  transportation  or  sale. 

The  subject  of  agriculture  is  being  eonsidere<l 
very  generally  by  schools.  Tills  book  is  intended 
to  supply  the  demand  for  a  l»road  knowledge 
of    the    subject,    both    general    and     specific.      It 


290  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

regards  farming  as  a  business,  to  which  science 
may  be  made  to  contribute  a  large  measure  of 
success.  It  treats  the  subject  from  the  side  of 
production,  since  it  is  not  practicable  to  confuse 
this  brief  treatment  with  a  discussion  of  social 
rural  questions. 

The  general  plan  of  the  book  is  to  state  fun- 
damental principles  in  terse  language  without 
very  much  explanation.  In  order  to  cover  so 
much  ground,  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  text 
very  brief.  It  is  considered  that  the  book  should 
not  run  beyond  three  hundred  pages,  else  it 
would  be  so  large  as  to  interfere  with  its  gen- 
eral usefulness.  The  bare  statement  of  princi- 
ples is  likely  to  be  dry  and  uninteresting,  how- 
ever, and  therefore  some  incidental  and  explana- 
tory remarks  are  placed  in  small  type  at  the 
end  of  each  chapter.  Principles  themselves  never 
need  pictures  for  illustration;  but  the  applica- 
tions of  these  principles  are  often  made  plain  by 
the  use  of  engravings.  Therefore  the  engravings 
are  placed  in  the  explanatory  text  rather  than 
in  the  preliminary  statements. 

The  whole  book  is  itself  a  skeleton  or  outline 
of  the  subject.  It  is  expected  that  the  reader 
will  fill  it  in  as  he  goes  along,  by  discussion  and 
by  reading  other  books,  bulletins  and  agricultural 
papers.  Some  useful  references  will  be  found  in 
the  explanatory  matter. 


KKVIFW      OF     rHK     HOOK  2'Jl 

Spend  at  least  one  nuM'ting  on  tin-  'ral)le  of 
(\")ntfnts  t'or  tlie  juuposf  of  developinir  a  iTfJuTal 
iKiint  of  vit'W  on  tin*  \vliol«'  snlgeet  of  a;xri«Miltnr»'. 
This  hook  is  nimle  for  a«lnlts  or  for  tliosr  wImi 
are  ol«l  enouji;)!  to  irrasp  a  <j:en»M'al  view  of  tie* 
subjects  included  in  aLrri<'nlliii<'.  It  i--  wt-ll  to 
liave  all  tliesr  suhjects  in  mind  at  the  outset,  so 
that  the  rtdative  iuijtortance  of  eacdi  may  he 
known  and   undcistood. 

It  will  he  noticed  that  the  introduction  is  «'on- 
ceriied  with  a  «^en<'ral  statement  (»f  what  ai^ii- 
cnlture  is.  It  has  thfec  co-oi'dinate  divisions,  as 
may  lie  seen  hy  th<'  analysis  on  ]>ai;<'  i\.  'i'lif 
first  tlivision  attempts  to  deline  airriculture,  tin- 
second  to  discuss  the  porsonal  attrihutes  on 
wliich  successful  ap^riculture  depends,  and  the 
third  defines  the  field  of  its  endeavor.  Under 
section  1  are  to  be  found  a  definition  of  ajrri- 
culture,  parairraphs  1,  2,  la,  2(i;  what  aj::ricul- 
ture  contributes  to  the  world,  3,  3rt;  what  ngri- 
rnlture  is,  4,  4a,  4h\  definitions  of  airricnlture, 
5-0,  8a,  Da.  In  section  2,  it  is  explaine<l  how- 
successful  farminj?  depends  on  the  executive 
ability  of  the  farmer,  in  paragraphs  1(>-12;  bow 
it  depejids  on  a  knowledge  of  science,  1.3-20; 
how  complicated  the  business  of  agriculture  is, 
21,  21a,  2\h.  In  section  3,  there  is  an  outline 
of  the  thincTs  with  which  agriculture  deals,  in 
paragraphs  22,  22a.  22/>. 


292  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Following  are  some  questions  that  might 
be  asked  on  this  introduction  in  order  to  bring 
out  the  various  points  involved.  These  outlines 
and  questions  may  suggest  how  all  the  chapters 
in  the  book  may  be  handled  with  some  degree 
of  satisfaction: 

1.  What  is  agriculture?  Is  it  the  same  as  farming?  As 
husbandry?  What  are  crops?  What  is  stock?  What  are  direct 
and  indirect  products  of  the  land? 

2.  Is  marketing  a  part  of  agriculture?  Define  primary  and 
secondary  products.     Contrast  agriculture  and  manufacture. 

3.  What  does  agriculture  contribute  to  the  world?  Is  agri- 
culture the  most  important  of  all  arts? 

4.  What  is  an  ideal  husbandry?  What  is  mixed  husbandry 
and  what  specialty  husbandry?  Which  most  completely  maintains 
itself? 

5.  Define  animal  industry,  horticulture,  forestry.  What  re- 
lation do  these  bear  to  agiiculture?  How  is  forestry  popularly 
misunderstood? 

6.  Is  the  farmer  a  business  man?  Why  is  executive  ability 
important?  What  is  meant  by  personality  and  how  important  is 
it  to  the  farmer?  Can  executive  ability  be  gained  wholly  from 
bcoks? 

7.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  term  farm -practice?  What 
is  the  value  of  one's  own  experience? 

8.  What  are  staple  and  special  products?  How  are  prices 
made  for  these  two  classes  of  products?  Which  class  is  the  more 
important  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region? 

9.  Name  two  reasons  why  a  knowledge  of  natural  science  is 
helpful  to  the  farmer. 

10.  Discuss  the  relation  of  physics  to  agriculture.  Of  me- 
chanics. Of  botany.  Of  zoology.  Of  chemistry.  Of  climatology. 
Of  geology.     Explain  what  you  mean  by  each  of  these  terms. 

11.  Give  some  illustration  of  how  complicated  the  business  of 
agriculture  is. 


UKVIKW     OK      11  IK     HOOK  29. '{ 

I'J.  Kxpiaiii  tlie  tlireo  proat  subjects  with  wbicli  a^jriculture 
dcnls. 

IJ.    Is  n^jrjcultiire  n  Bcienoo  or  an  aitt 

It  will  lit>  iiotictHl  that  tin-  Itody  ot"  the  hook 
is  (li\i(l»Ml  into  thi«M'  co-ordiiiat*'  parts:  the  soil^ 
the  plant,  the  animal.  Tin's*'  n'pn'st'iit  tlu'  thrrt' 
pi-fat  t'uiuhimcntals  on  which  tlic  siicccssliil  j>rac- 
tic'c  ol'  aiificiiltiii-t'  <h'jMMiiN.  A  coiujij.-tf  treatise 
on  ai^ricultiire  would  iiicliKh-  a  division  thtit 
would  liavo  to  do  with  the  -^k'neral  ••eonoinic 
principles  that  underlie  tlu'  husiness,  and  another 
on  tiie  social  relations;  hut  the  insertion  of  tliis 
discussion  would  carry  the  jiresent  vohune  ([tiito 
hi'vond  its  limits  of  usefulness  as  an  elementary 
text-book. 

PART    I.     Till-:    SOIL 

The  soil  is  considered  in  several  a>pti  i-.  It 
is  important  to  state  at  the  outset  that  the  pri- 
mary consideration  is  not  the  j)lant-t"ood  alone 
in  tlie  soil,  Imt  the  pliysical  ciiara<-teristics  as 
well.  In  the  ohler  books  it  was  jMistoinary  to 
place  most  of  tlie  stress  on  the  ehemienl  eon- 
tent  of  tlie  s<^il.  This  was  because  njrrieulturni 
chemistry  was  the  first  of  the  natural  scienci'S 
to  make  cjreat  eontributions  to  the  a«lvain'ement 
of  nirriculturnl  knowlodjr^.  It  is  now  under- 
stood that  the  physical  eonstitiition  of  the  soil 
is   as  important  as    its   chemical    < -^'itution;    it 


294  THE    PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

may  be  even  more  important,  since  plant- food 
can  be  added  if  the  soil  has  the  proper  physical 
make-up. 

The  soil  is  considered  in  six  general  phases: 
(1)  the  contents  of  the  soil,  as  to  what  it  is  and 
what  it  contains;  (2)  the  structure  of  the  soil; 
(3)  the  moisture  in  the  soil;  (4)  the  tillage  or 
amelioration  of  the  soil;  (5)  the  enrichment  of 
the  soil  by  means  of  farm  resources;  (6)  the 
enrichment  of  the  soil  by  means  of  commercial 
or  concentrated  materials. 


Chapter  1 

At  the  outset,  it  is  necessary  to  get  a  broad 
view  of  the  way  in  which  soils  have  come  to 
be,  and  wliat  the  content  of  the  soil  is.  As  soon 
the  farmer  develops  a  rational  point  of  view  on 
this  subject,  the  fields  and  hills  and  swamps 
will  have  a  new  meaning  to  him. 

What  are  the  sources  from  which  all  life  and  wealth  are  de- 
rived? Which  of  these  sources  are  beyond  the  control  of  roan? 
What  is  soil?  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  soil  as  contrasted 
with  laud? 

Of  what  two  kinds  of  elements  is  the  soil  composed  (|2a,  2^)? 
What  is  the  physical  basis  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  organic 
and  inorganic  (25a)?  What  does  the  soil  contain  besides  these 
two  classes  of  materials  (25)?  The  pupils  should  be  asked  to 
demonstrate  the  presence  of  inorganic  matter  in  any  soil  (25c). 
What  is  meant  by  weathering?  How  has  the  soil  been  formed  by 
means  of  weathering  (26)  ?     What  are  the  agencies  by  means  of 


REVIEW     UF     Tin;     lu»nK  _".»•> 

wliioli  wratlieriiiK  procefiisT  Dot>a  w«>Hthi>riii(;  act  on  Hurfftcea  that 
art«  ill  (^I'ticral  Ifvel  an  well  as  on  tlioNo  thiit  are  iiioiincttf  I'upils 
sliould  briiiR  ill  a  Btone  or  brii-k  or  some  olluT  piece  of  mineral 
niat«Tiul  that  shows  tha  eJTiet  of  weallu'rintj.  Why  are  pebbles 
rouiule<li  What  h:iH  luM-oiiie  i>f  the  parti<-le»  that  have  liJHappeared 
from  theiuf  Why  may  wealiieriiiff  proceed  less  slowly  on  level 
areas  than  on  steep  hills f  Why  do  mountains  and  hills  tend  to 
beoutue  rounded f  Why  are  some  mountain  peaks  sharp  and 
others  rouinb-dT  After  weatherin;j  has  proceeded,  how  are  the 
detached  particles  distribute«lf 

How  do  plants  become  a(;eiit8  in  the  formation  of  soil!  Where 
do  lichuus  growf  How  do  roots  act  in  the  inakinfj  of  soil!  How 
do  animals  contribute  to  the  making  of  soils!  What  is  uiulerstood 
by  chemical  action  (.'JOlT  Let  the  teacher  or  pupil  read  sotiie  of 
the  extracts  from  Darwin's  book  on  "Vegetable  Mold."  explaining 
how  it  is  that  the  earth-worm  contributes  to  the  formation  of  soil. 
Are  there  any  soils  in  whi<'li  or>janic  matter  predominates;  if  so, 
where  are  they  formed,  and  howT  What  is  humusf  How  does  it 
modify  the  texture  and  color  of  soilsf  What  is  tliH  value  of  humus 
i:i.l)t  How  may  the  farmer  secure  buniiis  for  his  land  f  How  im- 
portant do  you  consider  humus  to  be  in  the  fiirininp  of  your  nei^h- 
borlioodf  What  is  n  miero-o^^anism  T  How  do  inicro-orpanisms  benefit 
soils  or  contribute  to  the  prowlh  of  plants!  Do  you  understand 
that  the  soil  is  n  scene  of  life  as  well  n  collection  of  materials? 

How  is  soil  transported  and  laid  down?  How  may  stones  be 
a  source  of  benefit  to  land?  What  are  the  chief  apencies  by  means 
of  which  soils  have  be««n  trannportedf  What  soils  partake  most 
elosely  of  the  nature  of  the  bed  ro.-k  on  which  they  lief  Kxplain 
how  A  stream  becomes  a  transporter  of  soil.  What  is  muddy 
wnterT  Let  the  pupil  illustrate  what  there  is  in  muddy  water. 
What  are  glaeierst  What  has  been  their  effect  on  the  soil  on  a 
large  part  of  northeastern  North  AmericaT  Determine  whether 
the  soils  of  your  region  have  been  modified  by  the  •otioo  of 
glacieis.  What  inflncnce  has  the  wind  In  transporting  sollst 
Illustrate  from  the  sand  storms  of  the  plains  and  deserts.  Is  there 
dust  in  the  atmosphere!  If  so,  what  is  it  and  how  mar  it  he 
detected! 


296  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  useful  to  plant  life?  How  much  plant-food  may  an 
acre  of  land  contain?  What  is  available  plant- food?  What  is 
potential  plant- tood?  Is  all  of  the  plant-food  in  common  soils 
available?  How  does  nature  restore  or  maiiitain  the  fertility  of 
soils?  How  do  man's  operations  differ  from  Nature's  in  this 
regard?  Are  all  plant-food  materials  equally  useful  to  all  plants? 
What  effect  has  deep-rooting  on  the  soil,  and  on  the  amount  of 
plant-food  that  the  plant  obtains?  Why  are  fertilizers  useful? 
What  is  the  reason  for  their  application? 

Let  the  circle  or  pupils  read  paragraph  48  in  concert. 


Chapter  2 

In  this  chapter  we  discuss  the  texture  and 
structure  of  the  soil.  We  shall  find  that  the 
condition  of  the  soil  is  as  important  as  its  com- 
position. Farmers  have  always  known  this,  but 
it  is  only  recently  that  we  have  found  out  the 
underlying  reasons  why.  The  subject  of  "soil 
physics"  has  now  come  to  be  of  first  importance. 

What  are  the  two  general  offices  of  soil  so  far  as  the  growing 
of  plants  is  concerned?  Maya  soil  that  is  rich  in  all  tlie  plant- 
foods  still  be  unadapted  to  the  growing  of  crops?  Why  cannot 
crops  grow  on  rock?  Why  not  on  very  hard  clay?  Whnt  is  meant 
by  the  "texture"  of  the  soil?  By  the  "structure"?  What  is  the 
"physical  condition"  of  the  soil?  In  what  language  does  the 
farmer  express  a  good  physical  condition?  What  words  does  he 
use  to  express  a  poor  physical  condition? 

Name  the  reasons  why  good  structure  is  important  (52). 
Where  do  the  roots  feed?  What  relation  has  the  size  of  soil  par- 
ticles to  the  amount  of  available  plant-food?  Ilhistrate  tliis  by 
breaking  up  a  cube  of  sugar  or  a  lump  of  chalk.  Mathematically 
this  could  be  best  illustrated  by  cutting  up  a  cube  of  wax.  In 
what  way,  then,  may  the  fining  of  soil  be  said  to  increase  its  pro- 


REVIEW     OF     THE     BOOK  297 

duetivityf  Wliat  was  Ji-tliro  TulTs  theory  of  the  vnliio  of  tho 
ntiiiit;  of  the  soil  by  lueuiis  of  tillage  ^oUr)  f  How  important  wan 
Tull'8  work,  and  whyt 

III  what  gent  ml  way  may  thi»  strupturo  of  the  soil  be  improved  T 
What  is  uifaiit  by  making  t  lie  land  "  mellow  "f  What  kind  of  landn 
are  mostly  improved  by  being  made  melluwT  What  kind  of  lands 
are  improved  by  being  made  compact  or  retentivef  Name  tho 
three  ways  ia  which  the  size  of  the  soil  particles  may  bo  inotlified. 
NN'hat  are  the  general  uses  of  nnder-drainageT  May  nnder-diain- 
ing  improve  diy  lands?  What  is  the  water  taMeT  How  is  it 
raotliriid  by  ninler-draininirT  What  ia  an  amendment  f  How  does 
it  improve  or  moilify  the  «"hnraclerof  the  soil?  What  efTfct  may 
limo  have  when  added  to  the  Boil  usido  from  directly  furniching 
plant  foodT     Name  materiaU  from  which  hnmiis  may  l>e  derived. 

What  are  the  values  of  stable  nianuresT  Does  their  value  lie 
alone  in  the  amount  of  plant  food  that  they  containf  Illustrate 
the  vrilue  of  good  soil  texture  by  tlio  j)ractiie  of  the  flt>rist. 

Let  tho  class  read  aloud  and  in  concert   paragraph  60, 


Chapter  3 

It  is  important  that  tli»'  i»ni>il  p't  a  linn  p-nsp 
on  tii(»  stiiK'tinv  of  this  chapter,  ('oncrrnini]:  ////' 
moislitrr  in  (hr  soil.  Notice  that  it  is  (livi(h<l 
into  fonr  co-onliiiatc  parts: 

(1)  Why  moisture  is  important. 

(2)  II«»\v  tho  watiM*  is  hoM  in  the  soil. 

(.'?)  How  the  inoisttire-hoMin<^  capacity  of  tlie 
soil   nnty  he  increasc«l. 

(4)   The  saving  of  the  soil   moisture. 

Since  crop.s  oftener  fail  for  lack  of  moisturo 
than  for  lack  of  i^lant-food,  it  is  very  important 
that  this  chapter  he  ^iv^n    rn-.>rii1   .•<.ii<i.l.-r;if n.n. 


298  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Why  is  soil  moisture  important  in  agricultural  practice?  How 
do  plants  use  water?  How  may  the  loss  of  water  from  the  plant 
be  shown?  What  is  irrigation?  Under  what  conditions  is  irrijra- 
tion  admissible  (63«)'  In  what  pait  of  tlie  country  is  it  a  gen- 
eral practice,  and  in  what  part  a  special  practice? 

In  what  forms  may  water  be  held  in  the  soil?  Explain  each  of 
these  three  methods  ido,  66,  67).  Make  an  experiment  to  show 
the  capillary  power  of  the  soil.  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "film 
moisture?"  In  what  condition  is  the  water  held  in  very  wet  soils? 
"When  lands  are  in  proper  condition  for  the  growing  of  crops,  is 
the  soil  wet  or  is  it  mcist?  Illustrate  film  moisture  by  dip]ung  a 
marble  or  a  stone  in  water.  Illustrate  capillarity  by  applying 
one  corner  of  a  lump  of  sugar  to  water.  Illustrate  the  transfer  of 
water  from  particle  to  particle  by  placing  several  lurai'S  of  sugar 
together  and  applying  water  to  one  of  them.  Where  is  the  free 
water  of  the  soil?  What  is  meant  by  a  "leachy"  soil?  In  what 
Boils  and  under  what  conditions  does  water  run  off  the  surface? 
Does  this  wash  of  water  from  the  surface  do  any  harm  aside  from 
the  loss  of  the  water  itself? 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "rainfall?"  How  may  the  soil  be 
made  to  hold  the  rainfall?  How  may  surface  washing  be  pre- 
vented? How  do  soils  vary  in  their  capacity  to  hold  water? 
Make  an  experiment  to  illustrate  the  capacity  of  the  different 
soils  to  hold  moisture  {72n).  How  does  the  humus  content  of  the 
soil  affect  its  moisture-holding  capacity?  How  important  is 
humus  in  the  agriculture  of  your  region?  Is  there  sufficient  rain- 
fall in  this  region  to  carry  the  crops  through  the  season  without 
resorting  to  irrigation? 

How  is  the  humus  in  the  soil  depleted?  State  one  reason  why 
newly  broken  or  newly  cleared  lands  give  the  best  crops.  How 
may  the  humus  be  gradually  increased?  la  it  possible  to  put  too 
much  humus  in  the  land?  The  pupil  should  be  instructed  in  the 
effect  of  humus  in  different  kinds  of  soils,  "nils  that  are  already 
rich  in  humus  may  be  injured  rather  than  "benefited  by  the  appli- 
cation of  more,  whereas  those  that  are  lacking  in  humus  or  are 
very  hard,  or  very  loose  and  sandy,  maybe  greatly  benefited.  In 
many  of  the  loess  soils  of  the  middle  West  the  addition  of  much 


KEVIKW     OK     rUV.     HOOK  299 

humus  tn:iy  be  a  <letMilc<l  dinnilvantn^o.  Cull  ntti'iition  to  the  fact 
thiit  in  vory  wiinly  rt'^'ioiis  the  soil  tuny  l>o  nunie  no  loose  aiiti 
open  nixl  Hue  as  to  bo  exposol  to  niuoh  ilntun^ro  by  wimiH.  In 
new  countries  hnmiis  may  bo  nioi-o  abiuuiant  than  in  olil  litnda: 
whyf  Are  tlie  lands  in  your  tn'i;.'hbo:hood  in  need  of  liumnsf 
IlluHtrate  when  green-crops  Hhould  be  plowed  under  for  the  piir- 
po!«u  of  piviiiu  the  best  results.  Whnt  is  the  danger  of  plowing 
them  under  too  late  in  tiie  season  (7l»i'f 

Explain  what  drainaijo  is.  What  is  surface  drainajre  and 
under-tlraina;;ef  How  mny  surface  drains  bf  constructed  so  as 
to  interfere  least  with  airricultnral  operatioii>f  What  efffct  has 
nnilerMlrainn;;e  on  the  soilf  What  efTt-et  dots  a  warm  shower  in 
spring  hare  on  land  that  is  perfectly  drained  f  What  effe  "t  dois 
•  eoni  summer  shower  havef  Explain  sonio  of  tho  practices  of 
tile  driining,  as  to  depth  of  drain,  distance  apart  of  the  different 
drains  (7(ia,  7«!'»).  What  ndation  does  unilcr-drainago  have  to 
tap-rooted  (dants  (?'*«)  f     What  is  mi-ant  by  the  "soil  r<'s»'rvoirf " 

How  doi's  tilla^'e  enable  the  soil  to  hold  nioistur»'T  How  docs 
increaning  the  capillarity  increase  tho  nioistiire-hoMing  capacity? 
What  is  the  general  direction  of  tliH  movement  of  n)oisture  by 
means  of  capillary  attractionf  May  soil  be  made  too  fine!  What 
is  meant  by  "pmldling"  of  soils f 

What  is  meant  by  the  "conservation  of  moisture!"  How  does 
moisture  escape  from  tho  land?  What  is  meant  by  the  "surface 
mulch  "  or  the  "soil-mnlchT  "  About  how  much  wafer  is  required 
to  produce  a  pound  of  dry  matter  (81^  if  How  does  tillage  save 
the  nioisturi-f 

Explain  i  \)  the  general  direction  of  movement  of  soil  water 
iTi  the  growinir  a«'ason ;  ("J)  how  tho  moiifnre-holding  capacity  of 
tho  noil  may  be  iiii-ri>aiitMl ;  ( .1  \  how  Kurfacc  evaporation  may  be 
leHScned. 

Chapttr  ./ 

Tho  tillapf  of  the  sdH  may  now  \>o  con- 
siilero*!,  for  wo  liavo  lonruo<l  how  iiiinortniit 
tlio    physical    condition   of    tlio    soil    is,  ain!   also 


300  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

how  necessary  the  moisture  is  and  how  it  may 
be  caught  and  saved.  In  common  speech,  the 
word  cultivation  is  used  for  the  stirring  of  the 
soil;  but  it  is  better  to  use  the  word  tillage, 
since  this  is  a  specific  technical  word  with  no 
other  meaning. 

The  present  chapter  has  three  co-ordinate 
parts:  (1)  what  tillage  is;  (2)  what  tillage  does; 
(3)  how  tillage  is  performed. 

Explain  what  you  mean  by  the  word  tillage.  Why  is  tillage 
performed?  Distinguish  the  two  kinds  of  tillage  (85>,  Under 
what  conditions  are  these  kinds  practiced?  What  is  meant  by 
deep  and  shallow  tillage?     By  surface  tillage? 

Note  that  tillage  improves  the  land  in  three  general  ways. 
(Read  the  first  clause  in  the  paragraphs  ^7,  88,  ^9.)  How  does 
tillage  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil?  What  in- 
fluence has  it  in  saving  moisture?  What  influence  has  it  on  the 
chemical  actions  taking  place  in  the  soil?  Of  what  importance  is 
air  to  the  soil  (89a)?  In  what  sense  is  it  true  that  "tillage  is 
manure"? 

Note  that  there  are  three  general  ways  of  performing  tillage 
with  respect  to  the  kinds  of  tools  that  are  used.  What  are  they 
(§3a,  3b,  3ei?  Give  seven  reasons  why  we  plow.  Explain  how 
plowing  pulverizes  the  soil;  tlie  relation  it  Iims  to  green-manur- 
ing; how  it  increases  the  depth  of  the  soil;  what  relation  it  has 
to  hard-pnn  or  subsoil;  how  it  modifies  the  temperature  and 
moisture  of  the  soil;  what  relation  it  has  to  weathering.  Explain 
what  subsoiiing  is  and  what  it  does.  Define  the  words  furrow 
and  furrow-slice  '91a).  Describe  what  might  be  considered  to 
be  an  ideal  general -purpose  plow. 

Name  the  important  surface-working  tools.  Give  five  im- 
portant influences  that  surface-working  has  on  the  soil.  What  is 
meant  by  the  "earth-mulch?"  What  is  it  for?  How  deep  should 
it  be?  How  is  it  made?  How  may  it  he  destroyed?  How  is  it 
repaired?     How  often  should  it  be  repaired?     If  the  earth-mulch 


KKVIKW     OF     TllF,     BOOK  801 

its»-lf  is  very  dry,  may  it  »till  l>o  of  iixrT  At  wlint  time  of  the 
yi'iir  \a  enrlli-iuuU-li  iimst  usffnIF  Wluit  relation  b;i8  huifuee 
tillnpu  to  weeds f     Why  do  wo  till? 

Name  tools  tlint  linve  n  compnctinp  influence  on  noilg.  Nnrae 
some  im|>ortHnt  u«es  of  tho  compnctiii);  of  tlio  soil.  Wlmt  ia  the 
benefit  of  rolling  the  lamif  Whiit  nre  tho  disndvnntnce«f  Whut 
relation  has  tho  rollint;  to  perminnlion  of  8er<l!»T  Wlmt  relation 
to  «oi|  m«)if*tiiref  Does  tho  roliini^  of  the  laud  require  much 
judgment  f     Why? 

(liaptcrs  .'>  and  6 

"We  now  consider  tlio  enrirhinfj  (f  the  soil. 
We  liave  found  tliat  the  soil  is  niadt>  to  l»e  niurc 
prodiietivo  hy  tlioroni^li  i)reparati<>ii  and  liy  sub- 
sequent tillage.  The  i)lants  are  eiial)!**!  to  hiy 
hold  of  the  stores  of  ])lant-food,  and  many 
chemical  activities  nre  s«'t  u|)  that  result  in 
rendering  plant-food  more  availahh*.  The  plant 
is  given  a  comfortable  and  conirt'iiial  pla«'<>  in 
which  to  grow.  It  thrives.  We  have  found 
that  tho  physical  structure  or  condition  of  tiie 
soil  is  of  primary  importance.  When  we  have 
secured  tlie  best  physical  condition  and  have 
done  our  best  with  tillage,  we  may  then  think 
of  adding  extraneous  materials  to  tho  soil  for 
tlie  purpose  of  enriching  it.  That  is,  we  manure 
or  fertilize  the  lan«l.  Whether  thi^^  fertilizing 
pays  or  not,  depends  wholly  on  conditions.  The 
addition  of  mere  plant-food  is  rarely  profitaV)le 
unless  the  land  is  first  in  con<lition  for  the  very 
best  growiiiiT  of   tlie  plant. 


302  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

Manures  are  of  two  general  characters;  those 
that  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil,  and  those 
that  add  plant-food.  Barn  manures  usually  per- 
form both  offices,  aud  this  is  one  reason  why 
they  give  excellent  results. 

As  a  matter  of  farm -practice,  we  may  divide 
all  fertilizers  or  manurial  substances  in  two  great 
classes:  those  that  are  produced  on  the  farm, 
and  those  that  are  bought  from  the  market. 
The  best  agriculture  is  that  which  aims  to  pro- 
duce a  good  part  of  the  necessary  fertilizing 
materials  on  the  farm  itself.  These  materials 
are  by-products  (see  definition  in  glossary). 

In  Chapter  V  we  discuss  three  general  cate- 
gories: (1)  what  these  farm  manures  are,  (2) 
the  enriching  of  soiF  by  means  of  crops  that  are 
plowed  under,  (3)  direct  application  of  farm 
manures  to  the  land. 

The  following  questions  will  tend  to  bring  out 
the  various  points  in  the  chapter: 

What  is  the  real  fertility  of  the  land?  Has  it  to  do  alone  with 
plant  food?  What  is  the  first  step  toward  increasing  the  produc- 
tiveness of  any  soil?  What  are  the  means  by  which  this  step  may 
be  taken?  What  is  humus  (review  paragraph  33)?  How  is  humus 
secured? 

What  are  green-manures?  How  much  of  the  weight  of  a 
clover  crop  may  be  left  in  the  ground  (108a i?  Name  the  three 
classes  of  green-manure  crops,  and  explain  them.  How  may 
green-manuring  crops  be  classified,  with  reference  to  tlitir  nitro- 
gen-gathering power?  Name  some  of  the  nitrogen-gatherers. 
To  what   family  of  plants  do   they  belong?    Name  some  of   the 


RKVIKW     OK     TMi:     HOOK  303 

nitro}fen-conBum«Ts,  or  those  thiit  tlo  not  ndil  iiitrof;(>n  to  tho  noil. 
Do  tht-y  beloiiR  to  any  one  proup  or  family  of  iilnntttT  Niiiiio  the 
thrpo  prent  Btaplo  preon  >imiinr*»  crops  of  tho  nilrot;i-ti-pulh»*riiip 
clutts(lll).  Whut  is  mfinit  by  iuteiiMive  furuiiip  i  Ul^  t  Whnt 
by  exteusive  fiiriuinp  (  11  W>)  f 

What  id  tho  iJcnl  method  of  Beeuring  the  preen-manuriiip 
crop  in  pt'iuTal  apricultiire  (ll'J)f  t'nii  a  rt'jrtilar  rotation  \<o 
piactifi'il  in  tuost  kiiul;!  of  intfiisive  furniiugf  Why  inland  bene- 
tjtfd  by  bfinp  ''re»ttd"  in  clovt-r  or  some  otluT  cropt  Kxpiuin 
how  land  may  b«<  bfiu-fiti-d  Bometiim-s  even  by  "ro8tin»;"  in 
w.-fdn.  What  aro  tlio  two  values  of  preen- inanuro  crops  (114)T 
U  it  true  tliat  preen-ninnures  may  be  valuable  even  when  more 
pliint-food  is  not  need'df  Apply  this  to  fruit-prowinp  crops. 
How  nmy  a  system  of  preen -manure  croppinp  be  inaupnrnttd  on 
hard  and  poor  hindsf  Where  are  cover-crops  most  uat-ful,  and 
why?  IIow  early  should  th-^  cover-crop  in  orchards  be  plowed 
underT  May  wieils  ever  be  tiseful  in  orchards  late  in  thn  senMonT 
Why  should  tht-y  not  be  allowed  to  prow  early  in  tho  season f 
What  are  the  disadvantages  of  allowinp  weeds  to  prow  even  late 
ill  the  season  f 

What  does  the  application  of  stable  manure  do  for  the  landf 
r|>on  what  does  its  value  depend  (119  if  IIow  should  stable 
manures  bo  protected  or  stored  f  Kxplnin  whnt  you  understand  by 
a  covere«l  burnyard  iliOfi).  How  are  stable  nmniireH  afflicted  by 
exposure  to  the  weatherT  What  is  the  viiliio  of  thorouphly  rotted 
manur»'T  What  is  the  philosophy  of  compontinp  nianuresf  When 
the  manures  cannot  bo  sheltered  or  protected,  whut  disposition 
may  be  made  of  theinf     What   precnutionsf 

What  is  the  valiio  of  muekf  What  is  peat,  and  what  is  its 
▼aluef  Di*>ciis8  marl;  also  sawdust,  straw,  leaves,  pomace,  and 
the  'ike.  Under  what  conditions  do  you  think  it  would  pay  to 
ploi/  under  straw? 

In  Cliapt»'r  \'I  the  general  discussion  of  fcr- 
tilizor  substances  is  continuod,  but  in  tliis  case 
tlio  subjoct  is  commercial  plant -foo<ls.  This  is 
ft  sul)j»H't  of    very  preat    importance,  particularly 


304  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

in  the  older  states,  and  it  will  be  of  increasing 
importance  as  the  country  grows  older.  It  is  a 
technical  subject,  for  the  complete  understanding 
of  which  much  chemical  knowledge  is  needed. 
Persons  who  desire  to  stud}'  the  subject  in  detail 
should  consult  special  works  and  bulletins. 
However,  the  general  philosophy  of  the  applica- 
tion of  commercial  plant- foods  may  be  under- 
stood from  this  brief  chapter. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  chapter  has  six 
coordinate  parts:  (1)  what  the  elements  of  plant- 
food  are  in  the  soil,  and  which  ones  are  most 
likely  to  be  exhausted;  (2)  the  nitrogen  supply; 
(3)  phosphoric  acid  supply;  (4)  potash;  (5) 
amendments,  or  those  substances  that  act  bene- 
ficially on  the  structure  or  physical  condition  of 
the  soil;    (6)  discussion  of  commercial  fertilizers. 

What  is  a  chemically  fertile  soil?  What  is  an  element  { l-7a)  ? 
How  many  elements  are  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  the  plants 
(127;  pages  115-1 17  I?  Which  of  these  elements  are  most  likely  to 
be  depleted  by  the  growing  of  ci'ops?  In  order  that  tliese  elements 
may  be  useful  to  the  plants,  what  must  be  their  relation  to  water? 
Do  plants  use  these  elements  in  their  original  or  uneombined 
forms?  What  is  meant  by  a  compound  in  the  chemical  sense 
(130a)?  What  is  meant  by  "available"  plant-food?  Does  the 
soil  contain  much  unavailable  food  of  the  elements  that  p'ants 
need?  What  makes  plant  food  available?  What  is  the  influence 
of  tillage  in  this  respect?  Do  roots  themselves  make  plant-foods 
available  {]'.i\n,  review  also  paragraphs  30  and  30«)?  What  are 
the  disadvantages  in  the  use  of  barn  manures? 

What  is  the  ofSce  of  nitrogen?  How  does  it  affect  the  plant? 
How   may  the   lack    of    nitrogen    be   discovered?     Explain   what 


KEVIEW     OF     THK     BOOK  .30.') 

nitrogen  is  aiul  what  its  SDurcos  arc  Wluit  is  amiuuninf  Nitric 
»iM«lf  Nitrntif  What  i.i  tiie  n-lation  of  iiuuntH  to  iiitrogiMif  What 
is  iiitrificiitiunf  IIow  is  it  liroii;;ht  iihoiit  f  Is  tho  iiitrocfii  of  the 
•tiuospbi-re  UHi-il  l>y  |iiuiitMf  If  8o,  through  what  parts  of  the 
plants  is  it  taken  u\<1  IIow  uiiiy  wo  adJ  couimerciul  nitrogen 
to  liio  soilf 

What  is  tlio  chief  oflico  of  phosphoric  neiilT  What  crops  uee 
liberally  of  it  T  What  are  sourci'S  of  phoaplioric  aoidf  What  is 
nifaiit  by  the  term  pliosphatef  What  is  an  acid  phospliatt-f 
8ii|H'r|iliosphatu  (  l4:Ui  T  Expiain  the  rtdatioiiships  of  phonphorio 
acid  to  lime.  What  ia  a  "  rcs'iTtptl"  phosphatfT  In  what  forms 
are  tho  phosphatt-s  found  in  comrnfrcial  fortiliznisT 

What  is  Iho  oflice  of  potaslif  What  art'  the  sources  of  supply  f 
Whence  came  tho  oomnuM-cial  potash  salts!  Explain  what 
muiiate  and  sulfate  of  potash  are. 

Wiiat  is  an  amcndincnl  7  Give  rxamples.  How  does  an 
aroeiKltuent  affect  the  soil?  What  effect  may  lime  have  on  landf 
In  what  form  may  it  be  ni>plifdf  What  do  you  understand  by  an 
aciilT  AlkaliT  IIow  niany  snbhtances  tuny  be  tfj-tid  with  rej,'ard 
to  H>-idity  or  alkalinity  (lolia  f  Make  the  teat  with  vinegar  and 
with  lye. 

What  is  a  commercial  fertilizerf  What  is  meant  by  a  "com- 
plete" fertilizer f  What  is  m.-ant  by  "guaranteed  analvBisf 
What  is  meant  by  tho  "  brand  T "  What  are  the  relative  com- 
meninl  values  of  nitrogen,  phonphoric  acid  and  potash  f  Fiirure 
out  tho  coinmereial  or  estimated  value  of  a  t<>n  of  cotnmereini 
fertilizer  when  tho  piiarant«-ed  analysis  is  given.  How  may  you 
determine  whit  ii  tho  v.ihio  of  coininorcial  ferlilizerf 

Woulil  you  advise  n«ing  n  complete  fertilizer,  or  only  one  of 
tho  fertilizing  elejuentnT  Explain  under  what  conditions.  In 
what  kind  of  crops  is  nitrogen  cWiflly  nei-iledf  Is  tliere  danger  of 
logins  nitrniren  from  tho  soilf  Do  potash  Mn<l  phoN|ihoriu  acid 
lend  to  leach  out  as  mpid'v  as  nitrogen?  In  what  aojla  ia  |eact«- 
ing  leant  proiiounc»Mlf  When  are  fertilizers  npplied,  bef«te  or 
after  fitting  tl»e  Ian. If  Explain  tho  six  conditions  that  govern 
the  appli.-afioM  of  commer.-ial  fertiTzem  I  .'»  .  Can  definito  rules 
b«  civen  for  the  applicatioD  of  bu>  h  fertilixemf    Whyf 


306  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

PART  II.— THE  PLANT  AND  CROPS 

"We  have  now  completed  a  general  review  of 
the  characteristics  of  the  soil,  the  means  of  im- 
proving its  condition  and  of  adding  to  its  rich- 
ness. We  now  come  to  the  second  of  our  great 
subjects- — the  growing  of  plants.  The  growing  of 
many  plants  together  results  in  the  securing  of 
a  crop.  Oi'dinai'ily  the  general  farmer  considers 
the  crop  rather  than  the  individual  plant,  whereas 
the  gardener  considers  individual  plants  rather 
than  crops.  That  is,  the  gardener  gives  each 
plant  special  care.  He  often  grows  the  plant  in 
a  pot  and  every  vacancy  is  noticed.  The  gar- 
dener, therefore,  is  likely  to  secure  greater  results 
from  each  plant  than  the  general  farmer  is. 

It  will  be  seen  that  this  Part  II  is  laid  out  in 
six  chapters:  (vii)  what  the  offices  of  the  plant 
are  to  the  agriculturist;  (viii)  how  the  plant 
lives  and  grows;  (ix)  how  plants  may  be  prop- 
agated; (x)  how  land  may  be  prepared  in  order 
to  receive  the  seed;  (xi)  how  a  plant  is  cared 
for  after  it  has  germinated ;  (xii)  a  discussion 
of  a  few  fundamental  crops,  as  pasturage,  mea- 
dow, and  forage. 

Chapter  7 

The  following  questions  will  elucidate  the 
range  of   ilie  office'i  of  the  plant.     Note  that  the 


KKVir.w    OF   Tin:    nooK  3(»7 

chapter  is  divitlt'd  into  fivo  coonlinato  lioa<ls,  dis- 
cussing tln»  plant  and  tlic  ('io|>  in  its  general 
agricultural  hearings;  the  plant  in  its  relation 
to  tlio  soil;  t!ie  plant  in  its  relation  to  elinialc: 
the  plant  in  relation  to  nniinal  life;  and  th(»  )>lant 
in  relati(^n  to  man. 

Name  the  p«'neral  oflii'cs  of  tin*  plant,  ns  iiulnMirtil  in  pnrn- 
irrnph  1(')7.  Wliat  is  ini-ant  liy  "<T(>j)"f  Nuiue  a  dozen  crops. 
For  wliat  purpose  may  crops  bo  fjrownf 

How  dofs  the  plant  iiiflu«MM'o  or  modify  the  cojlT  How  doog 
it  supply  buniusT  How  docs  it  proti-ot  tlit<  Hojlf  What  value  may 
a  tap-rt)Ot  have(170rtif  How  may  plants  bo  utilized  to  prevent 
drifting  of  sands  and  otiier  loose  lnn(I^T 

Nuine  four  ways  in  wliich  the  pi. in  influences  the  supply  of 
moisture.  How  doi-s  it  r»'niler  the  surface  of  the  earth  more 
inhabitable  and  enjoyable!  What  influincf  have  forests  on  rain- 
fall (172a   T 

What  is  the  relation  of  plants  to  aniniaUT  Can  it  be  said 
that  "all  flesh  is  prassT"  What  is  the  "round  of  life!"  Let  the 
class  rend  nloud  and  in  conci-rt  paraprnph  17.'). 

Nutue  some  of  the  dir«'ct  us»-8  of  plants  to  man.  What  sr«« 
staple  productnT  What  are  semi-stapU-Hf  What  are  luxuries  or 
accesscriesf  What  are  conilimentsT  What  are  bevi-rncest  What 
classfs  of  plant  products  contribute  to  the  food  of  aninmlst  H"W 
are  plants  or  th»>ir  prfxlu<-ts  leo-d  in  llie  aits  or  m  inufsctmrsf 
Row  are  plants  us»'ful  as  objects  of  ornnmentt  In  whst  wsjs  do 
thiy  pratify  our  e^thi'tio  tastfS  and  seotimentsf  What  is  flori- 
culture t     Laodscape  borticultureT 

Chnptrr  8 

This  ehapter,  oti  how  thr  plant  VtveHy  is  in- 
tended to  give  an  outline  of  some  of  the  most 
itnportant    netivitie«5    of    plants.       Tf    the    render 


308  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF     AGRICULTURE 

wants  a  completer  account  of  these  matters  he 
should  consult  botanical  text- books.  It  will  be 
noticed  that  the  chapter  divides  into  four  co- 
ordinate heads:  (1)  what  the  plant  activities  are; 
(2)  the  factors  or  agencies  of  growth;  (3)  the 
processes  of  growth;  (4)  irritability,  or  move- 
ment in  plants. 

What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  that  the  plant  is  a  "dependent 
structure?"  With  what  must  the  plant  be  supplied  in  order  that 
it  shall  live  and  grow?  What  is  meant  by  the  sensitiveness  or 
irritability  of  a  plant? 

Upon  what  does  the  stiffness  or  rigidness  of  a  succulent  plant 
depend?  Why  does  such  a  shoot  wilt  when  it  is  severed  from  the 
plant?  What  is  meant  by  the  turgidity  of  the  cells?  How  does 
the  soil- water  pass  from  cell  to  cell?  Explain  or  illustrate  tur- 
gidity (IS4a).  What  are  root-hairs,  and  what  is  their  ofiQee? 
How  is  it  that  these  root-hairs  absorb  the  soil  water?  What  does 
the  soil-water  contain?  The  pupil  should  actually  see  and  examine 
root-hairs.  Compare  I806  and  figures  35-37.  How  much  water 
do  plants  contain?  Do  plants  absorb  more  water  than  they  need 
for  purposes  of  food?  If  so,  what  becomes  of  the  surplus?  What 
are  stomata?  What  is  their  action?  Ilhistiate  trnnspirntion  (see 
figures  40  and  10).  What  is  root  pressure?  Through  "iint  part 
of  the  plant  does  the  soil  water  ascend?  How  may  the  path  of 
ascent  be  ti-aced  (189^)? 

What  is  absorbed  with  the  soil-water?  To  what  part  of  the 
plant  does  this  soil-water,  with  its  contents,  go?  Does  the  plant 
absorb  only  those  substances  that  are  use  in  building  up  its  tissue? 
How  may  soil  substances  that  are  not  in  solution  be  brought  into 
that  condition?  Name  some  of  the  lending  substances  that  are 
brought  in  with  the  soil-wnter,  particularly  those  that  are  of 
primary  interest  to  the  farmer?  What  is  meant  )>y  the  "nsh"? 
What  does  the  ash  contain?  Do  all  the  ash  ingredier.ts  come  from 
the  soil?  Do  any  of  the  non-ash  ingredients  come  from  the 
soil? 


KEVIF.U      OF      IIIK      ItiMiK  'M\\i 

Where  docs  the  plant  B«otire  its  oxyir'-nT  Wliat  ih  nicnnt  by 
respiration  in  plantsf  How  is  it  compaitul  with  ri'Hpirntion  in 
aiiiuialsf  When  dot'S  reHpirntion  ohit-tly  take  plaoef  Hdw  niny 
rt'spirmion  bo  di'iuonstrutttl  (iyi<i)f  Iloxr  fise  ia  oxyj'pn  securfd 
than  throti;;h  the  aerial  partsf     Do  roots  nci'd  uirT     WliyT 

What  elt-nuMit  is  most  almmlaiit  in  plaiitsf  Wh«'iu'e  is  it  de- 
rived T  How  dui'H  it  btTOiuo  phmt-foodf  Define  photoxyntheHis. 
Compare  it  with  respiration.  What  is  assimihition  (lUS/cf  What 
is  chh>rophyl  (l!»Sft.T  Wiiat  is  plant -food  '  V"--  '  In  what  sense 
may  it  be  said  that  plants  "  purify  the  airf  ' 

How  does  heat  afTect  phmtsf  What  detjr.  o  nf  in  at  is  necessary 
for  pertain  activitiesT  In  what  parts  of  the  world  do  preeti  or 
HueiMilent  plant  tissues  most  abouiulT  Are  all  plants  equally 
aflected  by  similar  tempernturef 

What  substance  results  from  photosynthesis?  Wliat  beeomes 
of  itT  Illuritrate  how  stareh  may  bo  detected  ( 120:j/»  i  T  What  ate 
the  interna)  and  external  evidences  of  growth?  Note  that  wh<  n  a 
plant  ceases  to  grow  it  begins  to  die.  In  whnt  parts  do  ynunff 
stems  elongnti-?  Hnw  does  the  root  behave  in  this  respect?  Hnw 
mr«y  these  difTert-nces  be  shown?  How  is  ijii»r«'ase  in  dianieler 
effHoted?  Why  does  the  e.xtenial  bark  become  furrowed  and  crack 
and  briak  away?     What  is  meant  \>y  the  word  "sap"  ('JOT<i)? 

How  is  irritability  e.xpres-ed?  Name  some  visible  move- 
ments of  plants.  How  do  plants  move  with  r»*ference  to  light? 
With  referejice  to  gnivitation?  What  is  iniimt  bv  tlm  i.liitmw 
"reaction  of  plants  to  their  environment"? 


f'luiptrr    't 

Wo  now  (lisfu.-^s  llif  prnpfii/iition  of  plants. 
Not»»  that  tin*  rlinpt*'!'  is  tlividtMl  into  tliriM'  co- 
onlinntp  pints:  (1)  a  «liscii«sio!i  of  the  penerni 
means  hy  which  plants  are  propairat«'d ;  (2)  prop- 
agation l»y  moan'^  '  '  :  '  •  ropnjjntion  hy 
moans  of  hurls. 


310  THE     PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

What  are  the  two  great  classes  of  methods  by  means  of  which 
plants  are  propa£:atedf  What  three  objects  liiis  the  fanner  in 
mind  when  he  propagates  plants?  Wliat  do  you  understand  by 
the  term  "propagation"  as  applied  to  plants?  Whyai'e  not  seeds 
always  employed  as  a  means  of  propagntion?  What  is  meant  by 
the  term  "to  come  true  to  seed?"  Explain  why  it  is  th.it  plants 
that  are  habitually  propagated  by  buds  usually  do  not  come  true 
from  seeds  ( 215rt). 

What  are  four  general  requisites  or  proper  conditions  for  the 
germination  of  seed?  What  is  meant  by  the  "vitality"  of  seeds? 
How  do  seeds  vary  in  vitality,  and  why?  What  is  a  "seed-bed?" 
Ill  what  condition  should  it  be?  What  caution  is  suggested  for  the 
handling  of  old  and  weak  seeds?  What  is  the  reason  for  the 
soaking  of  seeds?  How  is  oxygen  applied  to  germinate  seeds? 
How  may  this  supply  be  increased  in  a  simple  experimental  way? 
What  is  meant  by  the  proper  temperature  for  the  germination  of 
seeds?  Give  examples  of  temperatures  that  are  best  for  certain 
kinds. 

What  is  the  ideal  soil  for  a  seed-bed,  and  why?  How  is  the 
depth  of  planting  modified  by  the  kind  of  soil?  Why  is  the  earth 
packed  about  seeds?  What  caution  is  given  respecting  the  cover- 
ing of  very  small  seeds?  What  is  meant  by  "  re-germinntiiig?" 
How  are  very  hard  and  bony  seeds  sometimes  treated?  What  do 
you  understand  by  the  term  "strMtification?  " 

What  do  you  understand  by  the  phrase  "propagation  by  means 
of  buds"?  Under  what  circumstances  are  plants  ])ropagated  by 
means  of  buds?  What  are  the  two  general  types  of  propagation 
by  buds? 

Explain  what  a  layer  is.  Bring  a  shoot  into  the  schoolroom 
and  show  how  layering  is  performed,  or  make  a  layer  from  some 
bush  or  tree  nearby.  What  plants  are  propagated  by  means  of 
layers?  When  are  the  layers  s^pa^ated  from  the  parent  plants? 
When  may  the  operHtion  be  performed? 

What  are  the  two  kinds  of  propaaration  by  means  of  detached 
or  separated  buds?  What  is  a  cutting?  A  slij)?  Agnft?  Tell 
what  softwood  or  greenwood  cuttings  are,  and  explain  how  they 
are  made  and  handled.     What  are   hardwood  and  dormant   cut- 


REVIEW     OF     TiiK     BOOK  311 

tingsT  riovr  made  and  hovr  bnn'llciif  Name  plnnta  thnt  Kro 
prop  .pntftl  by  luuans  of  softwood  cuttings  and  hardwood  cutlin^M. 
WLut  id  a  "siugle  eyo"  cuttitig,  and  buw  plant)  df 

Wliiit  do  you  understand  by  tlie  term  giaftingf  ("ion  f 
Stoi'kf  Wh.it  is  lucunt  by  the  woul  "  bud  "  as  U!<«"d  by  graftorn  or 
bu«l>l«*r8T  Wliy  do  the  oii'n  and  stork  uniteT  Wliy  is  it  n«"C«'«»Hry 
to  bind  up  tlie  woiiiida  or  to  cover  tlit-ni  with  waxf  Kxpluiu  the 
operation  of  cl»-ft  jjrafting.  Of  shii'ld- budding.  Under  what 
cir<■ulu^tanoe8  and  on  wliat  plants  are  tli<-!«e  methods  commonly 
useilt  Of  what  age  of  wood  is  the  cion  usually  mndi'T  \Vh«n  is 
grafting  perforniedf  BuddingT  How  are  plants  made  to  bi«  dwatf 
by  means  of  grafting  or  budding    l.*4l(j/>  if 


Chaptvr  1" 

Tho  preparation  of  the  In  fid  for  seal  will  now 
l»o  eousiilonHl.  Ilaviiiix  Ifanu'd  how  jdaiits  jin» 
propajratod  by  the  {^anh'in'r,  wo  may  takr  a 
b:oa<l«'r  viow  of  the  subject,  and  see  how  tht-y 
aro  startod  in  tho  fiolds  of  tho  farnior.  Wo  shall 
now  havo  to  do  with  (1)  tho  j::onoral  fat'tois  that 
dotorniino  tho  proparation  of  the  socd-botl;  (2) 
the  demands  made  by  the  plants  on  the  soil;  (3) 
tho  actual  makin;;  of  tlio  soed-i«'d;  (4)  ti»o  ap- 
plication of  tho  forojjjoin*:^  principles  to  su<-h 
fiinthimental  crops  as  wlioat,  Indian  corn  and 
potatoes. 

What  is  said  B->"'ii  in"  lo«8  from  faulty  preparation  of  Und  ? 
Why  is  it  so  very  important  thnt  the  farmer  should  know  whut  tbo 
il.al  seed-bod  should  be?  Wl.at  is  a  seed  bed.  aa  um-d  in  its 
agricultural  sense  (24:'/ii?  What  aro  llie  two  factors  that  govern 
the  prepnrnfion  of  the  land  for  the  Sf-ed-bed? 

Do  fine  seeds  demand  a  different  kind  of  seMl-bed  from  Tery 


312  THE     PRINCIPLES     OP    AGRICULTURE 

large  seeds  or  from  cuttings  of  potatoes?  Why?  How  may  plants 
change  their  root  system  to  adapt  themselves  to  different  kinds  of 
seed-beds?  How  is  the  seed  provided  with  food  to  start  it  off  before 
it  can  secure  a  foothold  on  the  soil?  Explain  the  different  char- 
acter of  seed-bed  demanded  by  clover  and  su{;ar  beets.  From 
wliat  part  of  the  soil  do  most  of  the  farm  plants  derive  their 
nourishment?  How  does  a  well  prepared  seed  bed  conduce  lothe 
earliness  of  the  crop?  How  do  plants  differ  in  regard  to  the 
character  of  seed-bed  that  they  require  (Explain  by  contrasting 
winter  wheat  and  Indian  corn)? 

Explain  the  importance  of  moisture  to  the  germination  of 
seeds.  What  kind  of  seed-bed  is  best  for  tlie  juvservation  of  soil 
moisture?  Keview  the  remarks  on  the  earth-mulch  in  Chapters 
HI  and  IV,  and  make  an  application  to  the  present  discussion. 
Whatismeant  by  the  "subsoil,"  "surface  soil,"  and  "sub-surface" 
soil?  What  is  the  value  of  rolling  the  seed-bed?  Explain  why 
the  seed-bed  should  contain  no  free  water.  If  it  is  desired  to 
plant  seeds  unusually  early,  what  must  be  the  prepaiation  of  the 
seed-bed, — that  is,  how  may  the  soil  be  warmed  up?  What 
effect  has  under-drainage  on  the  germination  of  seeds  (2')la)? 
What  can  you  say  about  soils  that  tend  to  bake?  What  is  the 
advantage  of  sowing  seeds  very  early?  Do  all  seeds  that  germinate 
make  good  plants?  Are  those  that  fail  to  make  good  plants 
necessarily  a  total  loss  to  the  fa7-mer?  Under  what  conditions  are 
seeds  sown  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  without  the  actual  prepaia- 
tion of  a  seed-bed?  What  cautions  are  given  respecting  the 
making  of  seed-beds  on  clay  lands?  Why  is  summer-fallowing 
practiced  as  a  preparation  for  wheat  growing  (2556)? 

Discuss  the  seed-bed  that  is  best  for  winter  wheat.  Under 
what  system  of  tillage  may  this  seed-bed  best  be  secured?  Whnt 
effect  does  this  seed-btd  have  on  the  root  system  of  the  wheat 
plant?  Why  is  it  best  that  wheat  roots  should  not  go  directly 
downwards  deep  into  the  soil?  Is  it  probable  that  the  root  system 
of  the  wheat  plant  tends  to  chanire  somewhat  as  spring  advances? 

What  is  the  ideal  seed-bed  for  maize  or  Indian  corn?  How 
does  it  differ  from  that  of  wheat?  What  are  the  best  machines 
for  planting  corn?    When  may  the  young  corn  be  tilled? 


REVIEW     OF     THi;     MOUK  813 

What  is  tlio  proper  seed-beil  for  potatoes?  Bhotild  thfv  bo 
I'liiuteJ  Avu'p  or  sballow?  Should  they  be  grown  in  level  culture 
or  on  ridges? 

Chaptrr   11 

Htivin«?  now  discusstMl  thf  |)r»'j»aratii>n  of  th« 
st»ed-bed  and  tli»'  slartini;  of  tlif  crnj.,  w«'  may 
irive  att«>ntion  to  some  of  tin*  itiinciplcs  that 
nnderlif  the  suhstqucnt  care  of  the  plaut.  Tliis 
r:ire  falls  under  three  jjeneral  eate«;()ri«'s:  (1)  the 
rare  ^ivt>n  hy  means  of  tina«^e;  (2)  the  care 
iriven  hy  means  of  prnninir  and  ti-ainini?;  (."I)  th«' 
care  ^Ivm  by  keepini;  ins»'cts  and  funiri  and 
other  enemies  in  check. 

What  is  the  first  considtTation  in  the  care  of  the  plant? 
What  are  the  ohjocts  of  tillage?  What  can  you  say  about  weedn? 
Name  Boino  of  the  general  means  of  keeping  weeds  in  eheek. 
IIow  often  should  surfsee  tillage  be  given?  Is  it  ever  pn»ctii«able 
to  till  sowed  crops?  How  lato  may  it  be  advisable  to  till  corn  by 
means  of  harrows? 

Is  tillage  ndvisablo  in  fruit  plantations?  Why  is  it  that  fruit 
plantations  may  do  better  without  tillage  than  corn  or  pointoes 
do?  Why  is  it  very  important  to  till  fruit  plantatiors  ear:y  in 
life?  May  the  on-hard  nerd  clean  tillage  throughout  its  whole 
life?  May  sod  ever  be  employed  in  an  orrhanl  to  advantage? 
Should  fruit  plantations  h«  tilled  uniformly  throughout  the  entir* 
season?  Kxplain  a  good  general  method  for  the  tillage  of  fruit 
lands. 

What  is  pruning?  Training.'  U  pnining  unnatural?  P'xplain 
by  reference  to  a  tree  top  what  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "struggle 
for  existent'e." 

Ett>lain  how  wounds  heal.  What  are  some  of  the  factor*  that 
determine  th««  proper  healing  of  w«iindH>  How  t\ntn  tho  »<r\«"n 
'f  thw  vesr  in  which  they  nr-   mmle   itilluKnco   the  hereling'      Wh-«' 


314  THE     PRINCIPLES     OF    AGRICULTURE 

should  be  the  length  and  form  of  stub  or  stump  when  a  Ifirge  limb 
is  cut  away?     What  is  the  value  of  dressings  on  wounds?     Ml-u 
tion  one  or  two  good  dressings. 

Explain  why  we  prune.  What  is  the  result  of  heavy  pruning 
of  the  top?  Heavy  pruning  of  roots?  What  are  watersprouts? 
What  influence  has  the  checking  of  growth?  How  may  this 
checking  of  growth  be  brought  about?  What  is  the  pliilosophy 
of  headiug-in  young  shoots?  Explain  the  eflfects  of  pruning  every 
year  versus  heavy  pruning  in  occasional  years. 

What  are  the  leading  kinds  of  enemies  of  plants?  Explain 
the  two  general  types  of  insects  with  reference  to  their  methr)ds 
of  feeding.  Give  illustrations  in  each.  What  are  some  of  the 
classes  of  fungous  pests  with  reference  to  their  manner  of  living? 
What  is  meant  by  physiological  or  constilutional  troubles?  How 
are  these  troubles  to  be  distinguished?  What  is  a  fungus  (,292a)? 
What  is  a  host  (292^)? 

W^hat  are  the  first  requisites  to  keeping  plants  free  of  insects 
and  fungi?  What  is  meant  by  prophylaxis  (294a)?  Name  the 
three  general  ways  in  which  insects  aie  killed.  What  are  the 
caustic  applications?  Discuss  the  poisonous  applications.  What 
classes  of  materials  are  used  as  fungicides!  What  is  Bordeaux 
mixture?  What  is  meant  by  the  term  "spraying?"  Explain  liow 
spraying  should  be  performed.  How  are  you  to  determine  what 
is  the  best  spray  pump?  Is  spraying  alone  sufficient  to  keep 
plants  healthy?    Explain  the  different  formulas. 

Chapter  12 

"We  now  pass  to  a  discussion  of  pastures, 
meadows  and  forage.  Relatively  few  of  the  acrri- 
cultnral  crops  can  be  considered  to  be  funda- 
mental, that  is,  to  underlie  the  general  system 
of  agricultural  practice.  It  is  impossible  in  a 
work  of  limited  scope  to  discuss  the  cultivation 
of  many  crops,  but  some   of   the  principles  that 


KKVir.W     OK      IHE     BOOK  315 

underlie  ci-on  <'ultivatiou  can  \h)  wi-ll  illustrat«'«| 
Avitli  a  r«'\v  examples.  Since  grasses  and  other 
forage  crops  are  of  sncli  universal  usi',  these 
have  been  chosen  for  illustration.  X»»te  that  the 
<*hapter  bejj^ins  with  (1)  u  i^^eneral  discussion  of 
t!ie  importance  of  grasses;  {2)  jM-iiiianeiit  pas- 
tures;   (.'))    meadows;    (4)   other  forage  plants. 

Why  is  prass  h-amI  to  l»o  tlie  f  unliuncntiil  crop?  What  \»  niennt 
\<y  the  term  "pmsa"  ns  used  in  its  popular  or  (reTiernl-lunpuaKe 
iti'iisu  i  iO{/>-:t04«)?  Wh:it  do  you  uiidorHtniul  by  the  term  "rof»- 
tiiHi  of  crops?"  What  are  the  mlvuiitaf^^es  of  rotntion?  How 
importnnt  is  frrass  in  Hiich  a  system?  Give  one  or  two  examples 
of  {;ood  rotation  of  crops  (305!)).  Explain  how  the  niimtx'r  of 
prnsa  plants  to  n  Htjnare  foot  may  be  moJitied  by  the  uses  to  which 
the  plants  ue  to  be  put. 

What  is  n  "  pasture?"  What  is  a  ''permanent  pasture"  ( .3()7n  i? 
IIo«v  sUonM  the  laml  bo  prnpared  for  tlie  making?  of  a  permant-nt 
pisturei'  Kxplain  how  paxtures  may  be  made  on  different  kinds 
of  soil.  Kxplain  how  a  (;oo<i  pasture  may  be  secured  on  land 
tli-it  has  be«'n  cropped  too  contitnially  and  failed  to  produce  well 
under  rotation.  Why  is  it  nece««snry  to  prepare  the  soil  for  p«'r- 
m.inent  pasture  very  thoron^'hly?  Why  dois  the  pasture  tend  to 
fall  with  »(fe? 

Name  some  of  the  kimls  of  prasses  that  may  be  emplovfd  in 
the  makinp  of  a  p'-nnnnent  pasture.  Why  are  clovera  said  to  be 
"host  plants"  to  the  prassos  .112,  3\2<i  ?  How  may  clovers  be 
maintained  in  pastures?  An  pastures  bepin  to  fail  for  lack  of 
plant -food,  how  may  thoy  bo  revived?  Explain  how  important 
constant  wntehfulness  in  to  the  maintenance  of  a  permanent 
picture.  What  is  the  necewsiiv  of  keeping  the  proun.l  constantly 
and  evenly  covere«l  with  sward?  What  can  you  say  altout  paa- 
t'lrinp  too  clo«.-?  A»»out  leftinp  tlm  pm«<»es  run  to  see.l?  What 
Issnid  about  IIia  importanco  of  thnde  on  the  •■i-fnce  of  the  pas- 
ture land*  ai'd  h'>w  it  mnv  be  wecured*  I  ••»  fas  In  para- 
prnph  :il7^  tlie  e««en»inl«  in  the  makinp  ai    :  of  pnstun^s. 


316  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICXJLTURE 

What  is  a  "meadow?"  How  does  it  differ  from  a  pasture? 
What  is  an  average  yield  for  a  meadow?  Wtiat  is  the  importance 
of  a  meadow  in  the  rotation?  In  what  kinds  of  meadows  are  the 
largest  yields  usually  secured?  What  is  the  advantage  of  mixing 
clover  with  the  grasses?  What  are  the  advantages  of  mixed  and 
unmixed  meadows  for  hay?  What  is  the  lowest  average  yield  at 
which  a  meadow  can  be  considered  to  be  profitable? 

What  is  a  "permanent  meadow?"  When  may  such  meadows 
be  advisable?  What  is  the  problem  with  lowland  meadows?  How 
should  the  number  of  plants  per  square  foot  differ  between 
meadows  and  pastures?  How  may  meadows  be  tilled  or  prevented 
from  becoming  "hidebound?" 

Name  some  of  the  grasses  that  are  best  adapted  to  mrr.dows. 
How  much  seed  may  be  sown  of  grasses  and  clover?  Name  some 
of  the  grasses  of  secondary  special  importance.  Suggest  how 
much  seed  may  be  required  to  an  acre. 

What  is  meant  by  the  term  "forage  plants?  "  By  "roughasre" 
(see  glossary)?  What  are  "soiling"  plants?  What  general  re- 
marks can  you  make  about  the  growing  or  tilling  of  forage  plants? 
What  are  the  two  leading  foiage  plants  of  the  United  States? 
Describe  them  and  tell  where  their  greatest  areas  of  production 
are.     Name  some  of  the  annual  forage  plants  of  secondary  value. 


PART  III.  THE  ANIMAL  AND  STOCK 

Note  that  there  are  two  general  subjects  con- 
sidered in  this  part  of  the  book.  These  subjects 
are:  the  animal  as  an  individual,  and  an  aggre- 
gation of  animals  known  as  live-stock.  Before 
one  can  handle  animals  in  groups  or  become  a 
stock  fanner,  he  must  know  the  characteristics 
of  the  individual  animals  and  how  to  feed  and 
treat  them.  This  part  of  the  book  is  divided 
into  four  general  parts:     (xiii)    the  general  offices 


KEVIF.W     OF     THK     BOOK  817 

of  the  animal  to  a«;rii*iilture;  (xiv)  aiiinuil  physi- 
olo*::y,  or  liow  tin-  animal  lives  and  grows  and 
p«'rfornis  its  functions;  (xv)  tlio  t'crditiLr  of  tlio 
animal  as  a  matter  of  farm  practi*-''-,  Cxvt'^  the 
general  management  of  tlu'  stock. 


Chaptrr  In 

We  first  discuss  the  offices  of  the  animal.  Note 
that  the  ofticos  of  the  animal  as  related  to  the 
farm  are  thrown  into  several  general  lit-ads. 
Cite  what  these  heads  are. 

Explain  the  offices  of  the  animal  as  outlined  in  parnf^raph  3:i6. 
What  is  Htock?  Name  nntue  of  the  animals  that  are  included 
under  this  term.  How  di>(>a  the  animal  have  ri*lution  to  the  boII 
in  respi'fl  to  maintaiiiint;  and  increasing  fertility?  Wlnit  relation 
has  stock  to  the  dispo»itiou  of  the  crops  of  the  farm?  Expluio 
bo<r  the  aiiimnl  itself  has  intrinHic  value  to  man.  C'laMsify  the 
Buiijvct,  as  in  iin,  4b.  4e.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  phraoe, 
'^tbe  animiil  aq  a  beast  of  burden?"  In  what  ways  does  the  ani- 
mal perfonu  luhor  for  the  farmer?  IIow  may  the  animal  act  as  a 
destroyer  of  pe»ts?  What  influence  has  the  stock  industrj-  on  thi> 
diversifii'nfion  of  labor?  What  is  meant  by  the  phrase  "diversi- 
fication of  lal»or?  " 

Chapter   If 

Xote  that  there  are  six  coordinate  part.s  m 
this  chapter  on  hoic  the  animal  liics.  Give  those 
six  parts  in  their  order  or  write  them  on  the 
bla<*k  hoard. 

This      chapitr  lu'what      t«'ehni<'ai.     and 


318  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

extra  time  should  be  given  to  it.  The  reader 
will  do  well  to  study  it  until  he  feels  a  sense  of 
mastery  of  the  subject  as  here  presented. 

What  is  a  cell?  Why  does  this  discussion  begin  with  the  cell? 
Discuss  single-celled  animals,  as  in  paragraphs  3.')6-359.  Do  these 
lowly  animals  have  distinct  organs?  What  is  meant  by  "many- 
celled  animals?"  What  are  the  offices  of  individual  cells  in  these 
many-celled  animals,  as  compared  with  tiiat  of  single-celled 
animals?  What  is  meant  by  the  "process  of  nutiition?"  By  the 
"nervous  processes?"  By  the  "processes  of  secretion"  (36:ia)? 
What  are  glands  (3636),  and  what  are  some  of  their  offices? 
What  are  the  offices  of  the  corpuscles  of  the  blood?  With  what 
may  these  corpuscles  be  compared?  What  is  the  lymph  and  tlie 
lymphatic  system  (365,  365a)?  What  is  meant  by  a  sjiecialized  and 
a  generalized  organ  or  organism  (360rt)? 

What  are  the  kinds  of  food  as  outlined  in  367?  What  are 
herbivorous  animals?  Carnivorous?  How  do  the  digestive  organs 
of  the  herbivorous  animals  differ  from  others?  Compare  the 
digestive  apparatus  of  tlie  horse  with  that  of  the  ox.  How  does 
artificial  care  and  selection  modify  the  size  of  the  digestive  orgnns? 
What  must  all  foods  contain  in  order  to  be  of  use  to  the  animal? 
Name  nitrogenous  foods.  Name  non-nitrogeneus  foods.  Wliat 
is  the  special  office  of  the  latter?  Are  the  non- nitrogenous  foods 
ever  formed  from  the  nitrogenous?  How?  What  is  meant  by  fat 
(371rt)?  What  are  the  mineral  salts?  What  is  the  constitution  of 
ideal  food?  What  is  meant  by  a  well-balanced  ration?  Can  a 
definite  mathematical  ration  be  constructed  that  will  be  of  equal 
value  for  all  animals?    Explain. 

What  is  digestion?  What  is  the  alimentary  canal?  What  are 
the  digestive  secretions?  Discuss  saliva.  What  is  the  active 
principle  of  saliva,  and  what  is  its  office?  What  are  ttie  offices 
of  the  various  stomachs  in  ruminating  animals?  Wh;it  is  the 
office  of  the  chewing  of  the  cud?  How  do  the  salivary  glands 
differ  between  youth  and  age?  What  relation  has  this  to  the  kind 
of  food  that  an  animal  should  have?  What  are  the  three  digestive 
principles  produced  by  the   stomach?     Describe   them.      What   is 


REVIEW     OK     THE     UOUK  'M9 

an  anliceptio  (3R7<i)?  What  is  p'pHin  and  peptono?  IIow  ar« 
p«*pt<)iif8  di^«tinf;ni^*ll«•«l?  Whiit  ia  tliiMr  ofluc?  What  is  tlio  niilk- 
cnrillini;  ftTiutiitf  Wliut  is  a  furiu(<nt  (Mi)a  ?  Wbut  is  rt>nnot,  and 
for  what  is  it  usvd?     Where  is  the  t>&8trio  jiiioo  secreted  in  birdnP 

What  digestion  takes  place  in  the  iutestinea?  Describe  the 
fluids  there  secreted.  What  is  bile  and  where  aecreted?  W*hat  is 
its  otVu'e?  Discuss  pancreatic  juice.  What  is  meant  by  an  emul- 
sion (;{y(xi)?     What  is  the  intestinal  juice.' 

The  various  fooils  having  been  digested,  they  are  now  to  be 
aborbed  or  takvn  into  the  bxdily  system.  Dtseribo  how  thi-y  are 
absorbed  by  nnans  of  villi.  Describe  wliat  a  villus  is.  Into 
what  lluids  do  these  digestive  matters  pa.ssf 

The  blood  having  received  the  digested  foods,  these  materials 
now  go  to  various  parts  of  the  body  to  build  up  the  tissues  and 
repair  waste.  What  is  one  of  the  m«)st  important  new  products 
resulting  from  digestion?  What  transformation  takes  place  in 
the  liver?     What  are  ptom.iines  and  toxins  (  40l»(i)  ? 

What  is  breathing?  What  is  the  relative  constitution  of  in- 
haled and  exhaled  air?  How  is  the  air  brought  into  contact  with 
the  bloodt  How  is  the  blood  cir>Milatfd  in  the  warm  bloml.-d 
animals?  What  is  the  nature  of  blood  as  it  goes  from  the  h«art 
and  returns  to  it?  What  becomes  of  the  excess  of  oxygen  in  the 
new  or  pure  bloo«l?  Where  does  the  real  effect  of  breathing  take 
place?  How  is  the  amount  of  needed  air  modified  by  the  con- 
dition or  activity  of  the  animal?  IIow  does  the  amount  vary  be- 
tween different  species  of  animals?  At  what  point  does  air  be- 
come unable  to  support  life  bt-canse  of  carl»on  dioxid?  What  is 
the  value  of  good  ventilation?     Give  any  practical  hints. 

What  is  ro<ant  by  "waste  of  tissue?"  Under  what  conditions 
does  waste  proceed  roo«t  rapidly?  I'nder  what  conditions  is 
waste  repaired?  Does  the  waste  take  place  in  exact  proportion 
to  the  energy  or  work  expended  by  the  individual?  When  will 
the  animal  lay  np  fat?  Under  what  conditions  are  milk-pro- 
diicing  animals  profitable  to  their  owners?  What  are  the  mo«t 
favorable  conditions  for  the  fattening  of  animaU?  What  are  the 
ilancers  of  too  close  confinement?  Is  the  animal  body  to  b* 
likened  to  a  mere  machine  i42fi  ? 


320  THE    PRINCIPLES    OP    AGRICULTURE 

Chapter  15 

Note  the  four  co-ordinate  parts  into  wliich 
this  chapter  on  the  feeding  of  the  animal  is 
divided;  namely,  sources  from  which  animal 
food  is  secured,  how  the  animal  uses  the  food, 
the  composition  of  fodders,  and  the  practice  of 
feeding. 

What  is  the  nature  of  animal  food?  What  is  a  fodder?  What 
must  fodder  contain  in  order  to  be  useful? 

How  is  it  that  the  animal  is  able  to  secure  energy  from  the 
materials  stored  in  plants?  How  does  the  animal  first  expend 
energy  on  the  food?  How  may  the  profit  in  fodder  be  represented? 
Why  is  it  that  some  substances  that  contain  an  abundance  of 
plant-food  may  still  be  unprofitable  for  feeding?  Name  the  five 
ways  in  which  the  animal  uses  fodder.  When  the  food  is  scant 
and  insufficient,  how  is  it  used?  What  is  meant  by  "food  of 
maintenance,"  "food  of  support,"  and  "food  of  production?"  Is 
all  the  food  or  material  consumed  by  the  animal  of  I'se  to  it  in 
building  up  animal  tissue?  Why?  How  does  the  proportion  of 
food  digested  vary  in  different  animals?  How  does  it  vary  with 
the  character  of  the  food  itself  ? 

Name  the  various  classes  of  suV)stances  which  compose  fod- 
ders. To  what  extent  is  water  present  in  fodders?  What  is  a  by- 
product (437a)?  What  is  the  use  of  the  water  to  animals?  How 
does  the  water  content  increase  the  value  of  fodder  in  general? 
What  is  ash?  From  what  sources  do  animals  secure  all  the  ash 
that  they  need?  What  is  the  importance  of  albuminoids  as  fodder 
constituents?  What  elements  do  they  contain?  How  does  the 
composition  of  albuminoids  vary?  What  are  carbohydrates? 
What  is  the  signification  of  the  terra  from  the  chemical  point  of 
view  {445«)?  What  is  the  particular  office  of  carhohydrates? 
What  is  meant  by  fiber?  Discuss  the  importance  of  fats  in  fod- 
ders.    How  is  the  feeding  valne  of  fat  expressed  (449)? 

What  are  the  classes  of  fodder  that  are  of  distinct  use  to  the 


REVIKNV      (IK      THE     BOOK  .'J21 

animal?  What  are  ilu-y  oulUii  collectivply?  What  ia  a  ration? 
What  is  a  bulam-td  ration?  Whiit  is  a  ntitritivo  ration?  Wliat  in 
a  "wiile"  and  u  "narrow"  nutritivu  ration?  (jive  an  ezanipln  (an 
BU(;t;«>8tt>d  by  4o:<(().  What  is  thu  %'aliit>  of  the  nutritive  ration  in 
aetiiul  feeding  practice?  Whicli  of  tiie  food  ronatitnenta  iH  nlo^t 
likely  to  be  lacking  and  is  iuohI  needful,  therefore,  to  bu  itupplii-d? 
On  what  does  the  quantity  of  food  required  by  an  nniiual  depeixl 
(45S,  45S<i,  4.'i9)?  How  does  the  amount  vary  betwe«Mi  youth  and 
age?  How  is  the  profit  seemed  from  feeding?  I'pon  what  does 
the  amount  of  "food  for  production"  depend?  Give  an  illustra- 
tion I4(>2l.  Is  the  food  that  an  animal  actually  eats  a  m«'»siire  of 
the  amount  that  it  actually  need^?  Kxpluin.  What  is  a  feiiling 
standard?  Give  an  example.  How  may  theH«>  feeding  Ktnmlatds 
be  varied?  What  is  the  advantngu  of  mere  bulk  in  ration?  Wlial 
are  the  substances  that  give  bulk  to  a  ration?  What  is  nirant  by 
the  terra  "coarse"  as  applied  to  fo»ld<rx?  What  by  the  t»rin 
"concentrated  fodders?"  What  is  the  danger  in  providing  a  too 
bulky  ration?  About  what  proportion  of  dried  matter  should  a 
particular  ration  contain  for  cud-chewing  animaU?  For  bonn's? 
What  is  meant  by  palatableness?  What  is  its  value  in  fo<l.bni* 
Give  one  reaxon  whynilBgo  inagood  fodder.  What  is  silajo  i4<iy''i' 
If  there  is  any  advantage  in  cooking  food*,  explain  what  it  is. 
What  is  the  a<lvantnge  of  cutting  or  shr«"dding  fodders?  What  ia 
the  advantage  of  variety  or  change  in  the  food  given  to  an  animal? 

Cluijj'ir   Its 

A  biiof  •li.scu.'^sion  of  the  manii<jfm>  ni  nj  stork 
may  now  bt«  un(l«'rtak»*ii.  Xot»'  tli«»  f<»tir  <livi.»ii<>n.s 
into  which  thin  rliaptor  falls:  as,  tho  bn'tMliiij? 
of  stork,  wljrn*  stock  raising  is  ndvisahle,  how 
much  sto<'k  can  he  kept  on  n  pivcii  ar«n.  am! 
the  cni'o  of  stock  in  pcncral. 

What  ia  in*>ant  by  tha  prnpsgnlion  or  incrras*  of    the   ra<*««' 

What  is  ue.'»>««arv  »>••% !  •',..  p..  r«  pr....  .,.»t,..n  of  .f.^-k?     W>,«t 


322  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    AGRICULTURE 

is  breeding  and  \\hat  are  its  two  objects?  "What  is  a  breed?  Name 
breeds  in  various  classes  of  stock.  When  may  a  uian  be  said  to 
be  a  stock  breeder?  What  is  meant  by  the  "mental"  ideal,  and 
what  is  its  value  in  stock-breeding?  When  may  the  ideal  be  im- 
practicable? How  does  the  idi-al  vary  with  different  classes  of 
stock?  How  are  animals  judg(  d  in  regaid  to  their  excellence? 
What  is  meant  by  the  judging  or  the  scoring  of  animals  (481«)? 
If  po-sible,  apply  the  score  cards  on  pages  27G  and  277  to  animals 
for  which  they  are  intended.  What  is  the  first  practice  in  breed- 
ing for  an  ideal?  What  is  the  second  point?  What  is  meant  by 
a  "prepotent"  animal?  Give  some  of  the  common  characteristics 
of  a  prepotent  animal.  What  is  a  "sport"?  What  impoitance  do 
tiiese  sports  usually  have  in  the  improvement  of  the  race?  What 
is  meant  by  the  term  "  fixed"  as  applied  to  breeding?  What  is  a 
pedigree?  What  are  the  advantages  of  a  pedigree  (486,  486«)? 
WHiat  is  meant  by  pure-blooded  stock?  Is  pure  stock  always  to 
be  advised  for  the  general  farmer,  and  why?  How  may  the 
farmer  secure  the  advantages  of  good  breeding  (487,  487a)? 

In  what  regions  and  under  what  conditions  is  live  stock 
growing  particularly  advantageous?  Discuss  the  advanlagt  s  of 
the  West  and  South  where  the  range  areas  are  large.  Discuss 
the  narrow  and  shelter<-d  valleys  of  the  North.  What  is  the  gm- 
eral  tendency  respecting  the  extent  of  stock  raising?  Name 
some  conditions  under  which  a  larjje  quantity  of  stock  can  r"t  be 
kejit  with  the  most  profit.  Let  the  class  read  paragraph  491  in 
concert. 

How  much  stock  may  be  profitably  kept  on  p.n  acie  in  the  rich 
prairie  countries?  How  much  on  farms  in  the  East?  What  are 
the  two  theories  or  principles  controlling  the  quantity  of  stock  a 
farm  can  keep  with  profit?  Explain  the  practice  of  buying  stock 
to  feeil.  Wiiat  are  the  economics  of  this  practice  when  figured 
on  the  basis  of  wheat  bran  {4<H),  497  ?  When  is  this  pi-acti- e  of 
stock-feeding  likely  to  be  profitaliU-?  Wliat  is  one  reason  for  the 
growth  of  this  practice  (499  ?  What  is  the  value  of  stock  feeding 
in  respect  to  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  land  (500,  S^OOa^? 

What  is  the  general  importance  of  making  animals  comfort- 
able?    Discuss  ventilation,  and   how  secured.     Discuss  the  tem- 


KF.VIFW     OF     TMR     HOOK  .'JJ.J 

pcrnttiru  nt  which  HtaMt-s  Blioiild  li«  luaiiitHiiii'd.  DiHciina  the 
iii)|>()rtitiii.>e  of  li^'lit,  ami  liow  it  may  bu  ('(iritrolled.  Di^niMi  nlno 
tli«>  iiifutis  of  Htiiriii);  the  nianiito.  I)iHiMi-«s  homi(>  priiici|ilca  tl>nt 
uiiilftlie  the  tvateritit;  of  animals,  llovr  do«-H  thn  ration  vary  with 
the  animal,  its  nge,  and  the  conditions  iindiT  »hi<h  it  is  kept? 
How  shouhi  the  nition  and  time  of  feedir.R  lie  povenifd?  What 
in  the  danpiT  of  fffdini;  tun  tniH-h  nt  any  one  tiiiu-?  L'-t  the  clans 
read  in  concert  paragraph  filOd,  at  the  hottom  of  paf;e  270. 


INDEX 


ilccesborles,  109. 

Ac.»l  phosphate,  94.  95 

Acid  soils,  97.  98,  104,  I-H9. 

Acidity,  2:M. 

.Esthetic  tastes,  109. 

Agnstiz,  referred  to,  35. 

Agrioulturul  cheniiittry.  9.  113. 

Ajcrirulturiil  colleges,  2. 

Agricultural  physics,  C. 

.Agriculture.  1.   II,  14. 

Air  in  soiN,  3^,  72. 

Albuniiii,  2i:i,  219,  2.V). 

Al»)uminoid8,  245.  240.  248,  2.57. 

Alfalfa,  192.  199. 

.\lliiieiitBry  canal,  215,  23:J. 

Alkuline.  2;{4. 

Alluvial  lands,  24. 

Alpt,  denundation  of,  30. 

Amendments,  40,  97. 

Ammonia.  90,  91. 

Am<i'l>a.  2.11. 

Amylopsin,  221. 

Anarharii  Canadensis,  128. 

Analysis  uf  soil,  42. 

.\ii;:lrwonn»,  17.  (271. 

Atui...il,    feeding  of,  240.  247,  2«i<., 

.\niiiiul,  bow  it  lives,  208. 

Animnl  industry,  2,  3. 

Anitiinl  locomotion,  7. 

A'lnn.il.  the.  201. 

AiiiiiKiN  and  soil-bulldlng,  \6. 

Aniuials.  fiprries  and  brmis,  14. 

AouuaiKnowtMlgc.  8. 


Antiseptic.  164,  17:i.  21H.  234L 

Apiculture,  3. 

Apple,  propniration,  144. 

Apple,  varieties  of,  14. 

Apples.  108. 

.\p|ilos,  tillinj;,  IGl,  1G2. 

Apple-sciib,  107,  175. 

Apple-worm,  205. 

Aquatic  (>lnnts,  19. 

Arthur  &  .M.icDougal,  128.  129.  131 

Arts,  aninmls  in.  20.1. 

Ash  in  foods.  242,  243. 

Ashes,  90. 

Assimilation  in  plants,  11,7,  I'^S. 

Astronomy,  15. 

Atkinson,  nf.rre.l  to.  124.  128.  135 

Availability,  88.  UH. 

Babcock  test.  278. 

Bacillus  uldquitus.  X't. 

Bacteria.  35.  167. 

Bailey,  quoted,   31.  XI.  4^  7S.  bi. 

111.  129,  1.10,  131.  140.  157.  171. 
Banana.  1. 
Karlry.  IOC. 

Barley  an<l  pastures,  Ibl. 
Barley,  wll.l.  191. 
Bam,  2fj».  2C9. 
Barnes.  refemHl  to,  131. 
Bam  yartl.  H2.  85.  06. 
Bayous.  23. 

Benn,  germlnnMon.  124. 
Bean  aoU.  42. 


326 


INDEX 


Beans,  5,  92,  108. 

Beans  and  moisture,  57. 

Bedding,  207. 

Bee-eulture.  3,  11. 

Beef,  11,  203. 

Beet,  sugar,  147. 

Beetle''.  1C6. 

Bermuda  grass.  181. 

Beverage,  108.  109. 

Bicycle,  204. 

Bile,  220,  236. 

Birds,  digestion  in,  220. 

Birds,  tame,  204. 

Black-knot,  1G7. 

Blights,  1G7,  174. 

Blood,  210,  211,  222,  226. 

Blood,  dried,  92,  20:i,  20G. 

Blue  grass,  181,  190,  195,  197. 

Bogs,  20,  181. 

Bone,  93,  207. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  169,  173,  177. 

Borers,  167,  108. 

Botany,  7,  15. 

Boulders,  24. 

Bran  for  feeding,  2GG. 

Breathing  in  animals,  224. 

Breeding,  8,  259. 

Breeds,  15. 

Brisket,  272,  276. 

Buckwheat,  79,  108,  136,  181. 

Bud  propagation,  136. 

Budding,  139,  140,  144. 

Buds,  opening,  130. 

Bulk  in  ration,  252. 

Burning  of  soils,  29. 

Business,  4,  9. 

Butter,  1,  11,  202. 

Buttermilk,  255. 

By-products,  255.  266. 

Cabbage,  club-root,  175. 


Calcium,  87.  116. 

California  Experiment  Station,  63 

Callus,  138. 

Cambium.  121,  139, 

Canned  fruits,  11. 

Capacity  of  soil,  50,  59.  157. 

Capillary  water,  48,  55,  58,  150, 157 

Carbohydrate.  127.  243.  246,  256. 

Carbon  dioxid.  104,   117,  118.    127 

129,  224.  235. 
Carbonate  of  copper,  169,  171 
Care  of  stock,  258. 
Carex,  194. 
Carnation.  14,  106. 
Carnivorous  animals,  108,  212 
Casein,  213,  218,  219,  256. 
Catch -crops,  78,  80. 
Cats,  108,  204. 

Cattle,  3,  14,  108,  201,  212,  272. 
Cauliflowers,  109. 
Cavanaugh,  chapter  by,  87. 
Cereals,  181,  263. 
Charcoal,  104. 
Chautauqua  belt,  14. 
Checking  growth,  165. 
Cheese,  1,  11,  219,  235. 
Chemical  action,  32. 
Chemicals  in  schools,  105. 
Chemistry,  8.  13,  15. 
Chester,  quoted,  34. 
Chicken,  3,  235. 
Chine,  272. 
Chlorophyi;,  118. 
Chrysrnthemum,  14. 
Chyle,  235. 
Cider,  1,  109. 
Cion,  i:;9,  144. 
Civil  engineering,  7. 
Clay,  moisture  in,  51 
Climatology,  9. 
Climate,  3,  9,  107,  111. 


!l 


INDEX 


32; 


Clinton  L.  A.,  chnpfrr  l.y.  47. 

Clinton,  L.  A.,  n-ferreil  to.  TO. 

CU^'l-oruslier-',  69. 

Clotliinjr.  1.  (80.  81.  84. 

Clover.   >rre«?n-pro|i,  2"J.  (>7.  ".'*.  "!>, 

Cl-'ver  In  nu'mlow?(.  181.    180.    IMI. 

C  ovei  roots,  no.  [101.  199. 

Clover,  pl.-intfood  In,  203,  20C. 

Clovi-r.  .oi-t-tl-brd  for.  l.")|. 

Clovfrs  anil  nitroj;<n.  0"- 

Club  root,  IT.'i. 

CoMutfs  Tull.  ?_>. 

Collegfs,  2. 

Conir  true,  l.tC.  140. 

Conifrty.  191. 

Coninicrcinl  ft-rtllinT.  9.*>.  98.  203. 

Compost.  34.  82. 

Coni|Miun<l<>.  88.  103. 

Conilimi-nt!*.  109.  (71. 

ContiTvntion   of   nioiHture,  .16,  fi.'i, 

Contiiiuintit  of  fooil,  213,  242.  2t.O. 

Constitutional    trouhlen,    l(k»,    lii7. 

CookinK  fooil.  2.'>4.  1 170.  174. 

Copper  funKicl<l«*.  1C9. 

Com.     See  ninize. 

Cornell  Rxp«>rimcnt  Station,  6;i. 

Cotton,  109,  120. 

Cotton -iipcil  nienl,  267. 

Corer-crop!*.  .'i2.  7'J,  80.  102. 

Covered  jnnl.  82.  8,"..  86. 

Cow.  nlr  re«|uirt«l  by.  228.  209 

Cow,  pointM  of,  273. 

Cow^,  fertllntc.  267. 

Cow*,  iit«nd«rd  for,  2ZQ 

Cow  peas,  79. 

Crul...  206. 

Crop  of  fowl,  220.  235. 

Crop*,  IOC,  202. 

Culilvntorn,  69. 

Culture.  72. 

Curraul  bug.  174. 


1   CurrantH,  cuttlnK*,  138. 
'   rut-flower?".    109. 

CuttiuKs.  i:;.''.  I  r: 

Cypren*  kti'  ■ 

I    Diiiry  liuNbandry.  3. 

DainieK  ill  nieiu|ow<>.  31,  I7U. 

Dnrwin,  quoted.  13.  :t:i. 

Davy,  work  of.  13. 
I    DeCnndolle,  quoted.  14. 

Dilln,  :J.1. 

Department  of  A(criculturv.  13 

Dewhip.  273,  277. 

DIeuloic  pliLxplintr,  95. 

Dicextion,  2ir>.  240. 

Disoovery,  12. 

Dixen!»e!«.  8,  10,  162. 

Ditches,  .'■)3.  00. 

Divernl  flout  ion  of   labor,  205.  207. 

DoKH,  108.  204.  (2li5.  278 

Drag,  76. 

Drainage.  53,  60. 

Diuin-..  48,  .Vt,  60. 

1)1.  "-itiKH,  8^1. 

Di'i's^iniTM  for  woumU,  164. 

Dried  blood.  92.  20:i.  208. 

Drie<l  meat.  206. 

Drought*,  49,  24. 

Duckn,  3,  200. 

Diik'gnr,  H.  .M..  chapter  by.  112 

Dutt  in  air.  35. 

Dwarflng.  137.  114 

Dym.  109. 

Earth  niulrh,  57.  65,  69,  71.  14* 
Carthwomx,  17,33. 

K'-I-k-x.  S.  13. 

y 

I  (.  213.  250. 

Eh'|t«.  I.  11.  .'•'-J. 
Elvmenta,  87.  103. 


328 

INDEX 

Elodea  Canadensis,  128. 

Float,  71. 

Emulsions,  168,  17.3,  221, 

235. 

Floating  islands,  20. 

Enemies  of  plants,  108. 

Floriculture,  3,  109 

Energy,  240 

Florists'  plants,  46. 

Engineering,  7. 

Flour,  11. 

Enriching  land,  77. 

Flower-pot  experiment,  57,  59. 

Ensilage.     See  silage. 

Flowers,  varieties,  15.                                              ! 

Entomology,  15. 

Fodder,  109,  239. 

Environment,  8,  13. 

Food  constituents,  2i;!,  243,  267. 

Escutcheon,  273,  276. 

Food,  cooking,  255.                     [271 

Evaporated  fruits,  1 

[125. 

Food  of  animals,  108,  212,  240,  243.                       1 

Evaporation  from  plants. 

113 

114, 

Food,  quantity  of,  250,  258,  266. 

Exhausted  lands,  27. 

Forage,  109,  191. 

Experiment  stations,  2,  13. 

Forcing-house,  80. 

Exploration,  12. 

Forest  a  crop,  106. 

Extensive  farming,  86. 

Forestry,  2,  3,  12,  111. 
Fowls,  3,  259. 

Factory.  11. 

Fowls,  digestion  in,  220. 

Fallowing,  158. 

Foxes,  212. 

Fall-plowing,  40. 

Free  water,  48,  50. 

Farming,  1,  11. 

Freezing  pulverizes  soil,  68. 

Farm-manures,  41. 

Frigid  zones,  plants  in,  119. 

Farm-practice,  4,  28. 

Fruit  evaporating  machinery,  7. 

Farm  resources,  77. 

Fruit-jrrowing,  3,  11,  80,  96. 

Fats  in  food,  213,  229,  243 

247 

256. 

Fruit  plantations,  tilling,  161. 

Feed-mills,  7. 

Fuchsias,  cuttings,  138. 

Feeding  of   animal,  240, 

247, 

266, 

Fungi,  106,  167,  169,  173. 

Feeding  standards,  252. 

[271. 

Fungicides,  169. 

Ferment,  233. 

Furrow,  72. 

Fertility,  real,  77. 

Furrow-slice,  74. 

Fertilizer,  41,  43,  95,  98.  203. 

Fertilizers,  brands  of,  15. 

Gang-plows,  163,  171. 

Fescue,  190,  191. 

Ganong,  quoted,  33. 

Fiber  in  foods,  243,  246. 

Garden,  12. 

Fibers,  2,  28,  109. 

Gastric  juice,  215,  218. 

Fibrin,  219. 

Gaye,  quoted,  33,  36,  129 

Film  moisture,  49,  59. 

Geese,  3. 

Fish,  3,  201,  203. 

Geike,  referred  to,  30. 

Fish,  ground,  204,  206.  20 

7. 

Geology,  9,  14. 

Flax,  109. 

Geraniums,  cuttings,  ■  138. 

Flesh  is  grass,  108. 

German  peasants,  206 

1 

INDEX 


329 


Oennlnatlcn.  lir..  124.  ir.T.  ns. 

Oerm!t.  21,  3o,  91. 

GilN.  2-2->. 

Oiiiifcr,  109. 

Oizinr.l.  220.235. 

Glaciers,  24,  33. 

Gland.-.,  210,  232. 

Gluten.  21.1.  218.  219. 

Glutonmcal,  2C7. 

filycopen,  211,  2i:i,  2:t2. 

Grafting.  l.'IT,  l.W,  i:i9.  U4. 

Grainfoeileri,  212. 

Grains.  2,  109. 

GrainH  and  phosphoric  arid,  9:<. 

Graniint'iP,  193. 

Granite,  wearing  away.  ,'«). 

Grape  districts.  277. 

Grape  mildew,  1C7. 

GraiH'-.,  rutting*,  138.  M'J. 

Gra.H.H,  179.  189.  193. 

Gra.'O  and  diiisien,  31. 

Gra.ns-feederH.  212. 

Gravitation  and  growth.  122. 

Green-crops,  plowing  under.  fiO.  i','< 

Green-roanureH.  21,  41,  52,  78,  79. 

Growth  and  nitmgen,  89. 

Growth,  In  plaut.s,  113,  120.  121. 

Growth  procejijten,  120.  121. 

Grub,  white,  205. 

Gypauiu.  95,  105,  123. 

Habilablenetifi,  107. 
lUirwa-ite.  204. 
Halfway  utone.  32. 
Ilappuiet*.  6. 
Hnrd  pan.  C7.  7». 
Harrow*.  69,  15.'..  160. 
flarrexting  marhlnenr.  7. 
Hay  r»i<iing,  Ij*'). 
Hrading  in,  liVi. 
H«art.  225,  22«.  23«. 


Hent  and  germination,  133. 

Heat  and  pliintn,  119. 

Heat-pro<lucing.  2*J'i   "ii.     "a. 

Hellebore,  1G9. 

Herap.  109. 

Herbage  and  plowing,  «>7,  tlh. 

HerbivorouH  animal*.  lOH,  212. 

Hogs.     See  pigit  and  nwine. 

Hoes,  69. 

Houeyjiuckle,  layering,  142. 

Hoof-meal.  2W.  20«;. 

Mop  districts,  277. 

Horn,  204. 

Horse,  air  n?quired  by,  269. 

Horse,  intestine  of.  212. 

Morse,  trotting.  275. 

Horses,  3,  108.201.212. 

Horses.  foo«l  of.  212,  2?J. 

Horses,  standards  for,  252. 

Horticulture,  2,  3,  12. 

Hortus,  12. 

Host.  167,  174.  183.  197. 

Housing  of   animals.  258,  266,  '271. 

Hudson,  palisades  of,  30. 

Humus.  20.  22,  .34,  41,  51,  52,  77, 

78,  81,  91.  93.  116,  149,  194,  2i*»4. 
Hungarian  grass.  193. 
Hunting.  12. 
Husbamlry.  2.  11.  2h. 
Hydraulic  rams.  7. 

Hvilr.fl;l..ri.-  11. -1. 1    ill    ■.t..m»,-li.  L' i  « 

I! 

Ih   .: 

Implements,  66,  69.  71.   71     7'..   "•• 

158,  ICO,  162,  171. 
Indian  com.     Sc«  mate 
Inorganic  matter,  16,  2M. 
losallration,  216. 
Insrctlriflrs.  |6H. 
Inserts,  (Ik-hiinff.  1  >.  I>>l.  K-A.  t>>K 


330 


IXDEX 


Intensive  farming,  79,  84,  2G3. 
Intemode,  121. 
Inter-tillage,  64,  72. 
Intestinal  juice,  21.5,  220,  221. 
Intestines,  sizes  of,  212. 
Iodine,  130,  233. 
Iron,  87. 

Irrigation,  48,  58. 
Irritabilit}-,  122. 
Islands,  floating,  20. 

Japan  clover,  79,  182,  194,  197. 
Jellies,  11. 

Judging  animals,  2G1,  273,  275. 
June  grass,  181,  190,  195,  197. 
Jute,  109. 

Kansas  Experiment  Station,  C3. 
Kerosene  and  emulsion,  1G8,  175. 
King,  quoted,  13,  33,  35,  30,  43,  45, 

63,  72,  111. 
Kitchen-garden  vegetables,  3,  12. 

Lagoons,  19,  23,  107. 

Lakes  and  soil,  19. 

Land  defined,  16. 

Landscape  horticulture,  3,  109. 

Law,  James,  chapter  by,  208. 

Lawn,  3,  109. 

Layers,  137,  142. 

Leachy  soils,  38,  39,  50,  91. 

Leaf -blights,  174. 

Leaf-hoppers,  168. 

Leaves,  84. 

Leguminous  plants,  79,  80  181,  192. 

Lespedeza  bicolor,  194. 

Lichen,  31. 

Liebig,  work  of,  13. 

Lilacs,  layering,  142. 

Lime,  45,  87,  97. 

Lime  and  phosphorus,  94. 


Lime  and  sulfuric  acid,  33 
Litmus  paper,  98,  104,  234. 
Liver,  220,  223. 
Live-stock,  263. 
Loam,  20,  51. 
Locomotion,  animal,  7. 
Lodeman,  referred  to,  177. 
Loin,  273,  276,  277. 
London  purple,  168,  176. 
Longevity  of  seeds,  133,  141. 
Lubbocu,  quoted,  30. 
Lucerne,  199. 
Lumber,  12,  109. 
Lungs,  225,  226,  238,  246. 
Luxuries,  5,  109. 
Lymph,  211,  222,  232,  236. 

Machinery,  7. 

Maize,  5,  26,  31,  47,  57,  58,  79. 

Maize  and  live-stock,  264,  266. 

Maize  and  oxygen,  117. 

Maize,  food  in,  278. 

Maize  forage,  192. 

Maize,  regermination,  136. 

Maize,  seed-bed  for,  148,  152. 

Maize,  tilling,  160,  170. 

Mal-nutrition,  8. 

Mammals,  3. 

Management  of  stock,  259. 

Mangrove,  19,  33. 

Manufacture,  2,  11,  15. 

Manures,  21,  41,  52,  65,  81,  82,  8C 

93,  201,  206,  265,  268. 
Many-celled  animals,  208. 
Marble,  wearing  away,  30,  32. 
Market-gardening,  86,  265. 
Market  problems,  5. 
Marl,  83. 

Marsh  grasses,  19. 
Match,  104. 
Mathematics,  15. 


INDKX 


^.?1 


MrmlowM,  harn>wln»».  100. 

Alt-:ulow<«,  uiakii:g,  185. 

Mini  for  fecdiuir,  2G7. 

M.-.it.  5.  202. 

.Mi*.tt,  dried.  20C. 

.^If<'littiiic«,  7. 

.M.di.-iiio,  2,  8. 

.M.dioine*.  109. 

M«llow  aoilii,  rtti,  39. 

Melon  find  col.l.  IJO. 

.Mrrrill.  n-fiTrt-d  to,  :m"i. 

Mft«-orolojry,  9. 

Microlx',  :15. 

Mioroorgonlsins,  22,  .14. 

Mirro-ori^nniHiiiM  nnd  fi-mient,  2TJ. 

Micro-orjcanisini  niid  nltropoii,  91. 

.Mili-h  cow,  cnw  of,  2:M). 

Mil.li-w».  107,  i:». 

.Milk,  1. 

.Milk  ounllink'  f.-n«n'iit.  218,  221. 

.^liik  III  no  hiiHTV,  7. 

Milk  mortUd,  211. 

.Aliiiini;,  I'J. 

Mlxid  hu-.Jmn.lry.  II.  28.  279. 

Moisture  Olid  K*'nninntion,  1X<.  Ul. 

MoJHturr,  consrrvatlon.  5ii,  6.'>,  71. 

MoNtura  in  iiotl«,  38.  47. 

Mold,  20,  51. 

Molda.  173. 

M  .1.  .-ulc*.  32. 

.^l■.:l■H•nlclc  phoftphntv,  9.*i. 

Monumrnt^,  wrarinR  Mway,  30. 

Mo«<,  31,  3:1. 

M'>nnl«iDs,  li>,  20. 

Murk.  83. 

Mutch  of  soil.  57.  C5.  C9,  71.  MO. 

ytw'.oy,  232. 

M.ill.in,  3C. 

.Mnr:  t'.o  of  potmjih,  9>>,  123. 

>t        .tl.;  arid  in  Rtoniach.  218. 

.Mii^'  IP  rdl.  231 


Mu!«lard.  79. 
Muiile.  27:».  27G,  27 


Nebrn.Hka  Kx|H'riiuput  Station.  83 
NiTVoujt  prt>c««sHf».  210. 
Nichol.Hon.  quoted,  14. 
Nile.  24. 

Nitrate  of  Mu<la.  90.  92. 
Nitrates.  90.  91.  H>4. 
Nitritlcntion.  38,  ('..'i.  91. 
Nitrltf!!,  104. 

NltroKcn,  87,89,  98,  101,  IH5.  2ai. 
Nltro(;cn,  ainomit  in  soil,  2.*>. 
Nitropen-pittinrvrn.  79.80.  181,  1«I2. 
Nitrogen  in  fo.>d,  213,  245. 
Nuiubersi  of  Hpeoien.  14. 
Nurnerynien'H  nio<t«,  'X\. 
Nutrition  in  oelN.  210. 
Nutritive  ratio.  247.  257. 

Out-*,  47,  79. 

Oats  for  forage.  193. 

Oat!*,  regeriiiination.  \M. 

Oats,  water  In.  47. 

OflHoeH  of  the  plant.  106. 

Oil  meal,  2(17. 

Oil  of  vitriol,  92,  94. 

Olericulture,  3. 

Onion  Meed«,  i:t3,   I"''. 

Opium,  \m. 

Optimum  teniprr.'i' 

Orange,  bu.l.ling,  144. 

Or»ngr«,  10.H.  [197 

Orchard  graaa,    110,  1«' 

OrrhartU,  tilling.  I'W 

Organic  matter.    ' 

Organic  matter  r.  ? 

Organiam*.  21.  |ing.  iiy. 

Om:\ni.  lit  d  j.Iant«,  t.  109. 


332 


INDEX 


Ostreaeulture,  3. 

Ox,  212. 

Oxen,  standards  for,  252. 

Oxygen,  90,  116,  129. 

Oxygen  and  germination,  133,  1.34. 

Oxygen  in  blood,  211,  223,  246. 

Oxygen  in  breathing,  224. 

Oyster-raising,  3. 

Palatability,  244,  254. 
Palisades,  30. 
Pancreatic  juice,  215,  221. 
Paradise,  12. 
Parasitic  fungi,  166,  173. 
Paris  green,  168,  176. 
Parkinson's  book,  13. 
Parsnip  seeds,  133. 
Particles  of  soil,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 
Pastures,  harrowing.  160,  181. 
Pastures,  permanent,  180,  197. 
Pathology,  8. 
Pea  family,  79. 
Pea  mildew,  167. 
Pea,  regermination,  136. 
Peach,  budding,  144. 
Peaches,  106. 
Pear-blight,  167. 
Pear,  propagating,  144. 
Pears,  tilling,  162. 
Peas,  92,  193. 

Peas,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 
Peat,  20,  83. 
Pedigree,  262,  263,  278. 
Pepsin,  218. 
.Peptones,  219,  223. 
Perennials,  146. 
Perfumery,  109. 
Pests,  10,  167. 
Pests  and  stock,  205. 
Pets,  204. 
Phleuni  pratense,  195. 


Phosphate,  88,  94,  93,  104. 

Phosphatic  rocks,  94. 

Phosphoric  acid,  25,  93,  93,  101. 

Phosphorus,  87,  88,  104,  110,  203. 

Physics,  6.  [170,174. 

Physiological    troubles,    166,    167* 

Physiology,  8. 

Pigs.     See  also  swine. 

Pigs,  standards  for,  252. 

Pin-bone,  273,  27G,  278. 

Planker,  71,  75,  7J. 

Plant-food  defined,  128. 

Plant-food  elements,  87. 

Plant,  how  it  lives,  112. 

Plant-knowledge,  7. 

Plant-lice,  166,  168. 

Plants,  species  and  varieties,  14. 

Plaster,  95. 

Plowing,  66,  162,  171. 

Plowing  green-crops,  60,  65. 

Plowing  to  dry  the  land,  68. 

Plows,  73,  74. 

Plum,  budding,  144. 

Plum-rot,  175. 

Poa  pratensis,  195. 

Points  of  animals,  262,  273.  275. 

Poisons  for  insects,  168. 

Pomace,  84,  256. 

Pomology,  3. 

Ponds  afld  soil,  19. 

Pork.  203. 

Pot,  with  plant,  46. 

Potash,  95,  98,  101. 

Potash,  amount  in  soil,  25. 

Potassium,  87,  104,  116. 

Potato-bugs,  1C9. 

Potato  mildew,  167. 

Potato,  propagation,  146,  155. 

Potato  refuse,  78. 

Potato,  seed-bed  for,  154,  12.S. 

Potato  tuber,  124 


INDKX 


33:j 


Potnto,  VBri»'tic>i  of,  M. 
Potntoes,  1,  yC,  108. 
Potnfocs  and  nuirintr,  IHl. 
I'otntoon,  tillinK.  H'O. 
[•otato«-!»,  water  In,  47. 
I'otft.tittl  plftnt-f.MMl.  M 
Poultry,  bpffils  of,  2(">0. 
I'oultryraisinp,  3,  203. 
Pmirlos,  stock  on,  2G6. 
Precipices,  30. 
Precipllat«,  235. 
Precipitation,  59. 
Prepotent,  201. 
Preventives  for  pests,  IfiT. 
Principles,  15. 
Principles  of  pruniiif;,  ]<>o. 
Pnipnpation  of  plants,  i:!2. 
Prophylaxis,  17.">. 
Protfiils,  2»7.  2»». 
Pnitein,  213,  241,  248. 
F'rotoplasni,  113,  127. 
Proventriculu»,  220,  235. 
Pruning,  1C3. 
Ptomaines.  224,  236. 
Ptynlin,  21C,  2.U. 
Pii.l.llinf:.  08. 
Pump,  7,  1C9,  170.  177. 
Pumpkin,  germination.  124. 
Purr-l.l<Ki.|  stock.  24^ 
Purse,  278. 

Quock-grass,  31. 

Qiiadrupetls,  201. 

Qu.intitj-  of  foo<l.  250,  2.-^.  20f'. 

(Quarries,  30. 

Qu.irtcr,  273. 

Q.i  .-klim**.  40.  »7. 

il-  igatlon.  144. 

V 

gui;..!,-  .  \-<0. 

Rabbits.  204. 


Uagweoil,  31. 

Rain  drops.  35. 

Rainfall,  48,  ."io.  .V.t.  <Vi    lo: 

Rakes,  C9. 

Range,  2G3. 

Rape,  79. 

Ratio,  nutritive.  247.  3.'.7. 

Ration,  214,  250,  271. 

Re<l-clover  is  tap  riHitril.  in.,  i 

Rod-top,  181,  1!»0. 

Refuse,  78. 

Regoniiination,  KDi. 

Remedies  for  pests,  107. 

Rennet,  235. 

Reservoir  for  water,  54.  fi.'i.  07- 

Rcsources  of  soil,  2.1. 

Respiration  in  nnimnl.x.  .:."■ 

Respiration  in  plnntN,  117 

Rest  of  animaN.  2'2H. 

Resting  tho  laud.  80. 

Retentive  soiU,  38,  39. 

Ren-rted  phosphate,  9>*> 

Ribs,  273. 

Rice,  106. 

Rill,  35.  [170. 

RoU'rts.   I.    P.,  chapters    by. 

Roberts,  quoted,  25,  3.0,  36,  45 

72,  74,  70,  84,  86.  105,  307. 
Bock  and  soil.  16.  42. 
Boiler,  71,  70.  IM. 
Boot  crops,  96. 
Root,  cvoluUou  of,  31. 
Root,  growth  of.  121,  131. 
Ruotbairs,  113,  124. 
Boot-pressure,  115,  125. 
Boot-pruning,  105.         (32.86. 
Boots   and  soil  formaliou.    14 
Busebug,  175. 
Rot  of  plum,  175. 
Rotation,  79.  179.  197,  207 

l{<ltA(ii>Il    Ktl'l    (><•(<.     !•'•><. 


259. 
14.'.. 
.  0.1. 


lot 


334 


INDEX 


Rotten  stones,  23. 
Eougbage,  191. 
Ruminants,  216,  253. 
Rump,  273,  274,  278. 
Rusts,  174. 

Rye  and  pastures,  181. 
Rye  for  forage,  192. 
R}'e  to  plow  under,  07,  79. 
Rye,  to  prevent  erosion,  51. 

Saliva,  215,  232. 

Saltpetre,  90. 

Salts,  115,  123.  214. 

Sand-bars,  35. 

Sand,  moisture  in,  51. 

Sand-storms,  25. 

Sands  held  by  plants.  111. 

Sap,  114,  115,  124,  126,  131. 

Saprophyte,  173. 

Sawdu.st,  83. 

Scab,  167. 

Scale  insects,  166,  108. 

Scales,  experiment  with,  59. 

Sciences,  5. 

Sea  crabs,  206. 

Sea  margins,  19. 

Seaweed,  31. 

Sea-wrack,  19. 

Season  to  prune,  164. 

Secretion,  210. 

Sedges,  19, 193. 

Sei'd,  155. 

Seedage,  133,  135. 

Seed-bed,  70,  71,  134,  145,  155. 

Seedlings,  raising  of,  135. 

Seeds,  germination,  133,  142,  145. 

Semi-staples,  108. 

Shade,  108. 

Shaler,  referred  to,  36. 

Sheep,  3,  108.  201,  212. 

Sheep  stomach,  233. 


Sheltering  manure,  82. 
Ships  dusty  at  sea,  36. 
Shower,  35. 
Silage,  254,  2.58. 
Silicon,  87. 
Silo,  258,  265. 
Single-celled  animals,  208. 
Slips,  138. 
Smtits,  170,  178. 
Snowballs,  layering,  140. 
Soaking  seeds,  134. 
Soap  washes,  108. 
Sod,  influence  on  soil,  21,  68. 
Sod  in  orchards,  IGl. 
Sodium,  116. 
Soil  and  stock,  202. 
Soil,  contents  of,  16,  42. 
Soil,  moisture  in,  50. 
Soil-mulch,  57,  05,  09,  71,  149. 
Soil  particles,  size  of,  39,  43,  44. 
Soil,  texture  of,  37. 
Soiling  crops,  191. 
Sorauer,  referred  to,  124,  126,  127. 
Specialized,  2.32. 

Specialty-farming,  11,  279.  [14. 

Species,  number  of  in  cultivation. 
Speculation,  12.  [by,  37. 

Spencer,  J.  W.,  quoted  35;  chapter 
Sphagnum,  20,  33. 
Spices,  109. 
Spittle,  232. 
Spores,  169,  218,  234. 
Sport,  262. 
Spraying,  165,  169. 
Springs,  48,  50. 
Squash-bug,  167. 
Squash,  seedling  of,  131. 
Squashes  and  moisture,  57. 
Stable-manure,  21,  41. 
Stable-manures,  65,  81,  82,  89,  93, 
201,  265,  268. 


INDEX 


i35 


Stal.Io!*.  82,  8C  258.  2C.0.  2?-'. 

StaiulunlN,  fi'cding,  2r)2. 

Stni'liK,  5,  108. 

Sinrch.  2S.  118.  127,  129,  i:iO.  233. 

Starch  v<|uivulent.  247. 

Stanh  ill  foo<l.  21.^.  24C. 

SteiT,  score  of,  277. 

Slt-ni,  growth  of,  121,  130. 

StitU'.  273. 

Stitikltug,  107. 

Stock,  :«,  201. 

Stock  niul  |>a<iturfs,  181. 

Stock,  care  of,  2:>0. 

Siiwk,  ill  pmftiiitr,  139. 

Stwkbriagp,  ri-ffrr©<l  to,  30. 

Stomarh.  212,  2.U. 

Stonmta.  lU.  117,  124. 

StoiH-.i  gr'>w  smaller,  30. 

Stonrs,  rotten,  23. 

Stratinrntion,  I.IG. 

Straw.  fX 

StreniiM.  action  of.  3.'i. 

Stream!!  carry  noil.  23. 

Strutrgle  for  exi.itence  in  tn'e-t«i|» 

IC!,  173. 
Stiil>hlv  and  plowing.  G8. 
Stul.ble  refme,  78.  80. 
Sturtevnnt,  quoted,  14. 
Sul>'<oil,  74. 
Suhioiling,  08. 
SubKurfare,   l.'>5. 
Sulfate  of  ammonia.  92. 
Sulfate  of  potMh,  9(>. 
Sulfur.  87,  116. 
Sulfur  fungicide,  li'i9. 
Sulfuric  arid.  33.  '.rJ.  'H,  if. 
Sj-.ntr,  28 
SugarU-et,  147. 

Sugar-canx  and  muriate,  96,  14r. 
Sugar  in  plant.  120,  127,  131. 
Sagmr  in  digestion.  233. 


Sugars  in  food,  213,  246. 

Suiiimer-fnllowiiig,  l.*>8. 

Sunlight  an<l  growth.  118. 

Supcrphos|>li»'<-    'ill 

Surgery,  8. 

Swamps,  2i). 

Swrut.  211. 

Sweet  potntoe.i,  118. 

Sweet  vernal  gnuts.  191. 

Swine.  2111. 

Swine  and  pests.  205. 

Swine,  feeding,  272. 

Switch,  273. 
I   .Symbols  of  I'liin.i.rs     lii( 
.   Syringe.  Kiv 

Tankage,  203.  206. 

Tap-roots.  110,  147. 

Tnrr.  refernd  to,  14,  .15,  36. 

Teata,  273.  276. 

Tumperntiiri)  for  barns.  270. 

Temperature  for  gcrn)iiiiiti..i.    i.ti 

Temperature  of  soil,  It' 

Texa-n  steer,  212. 

Textiles,  109. 

Texture  of  soil,  31. 

Thawing,  influence  on  solU,  C8. 

Thinning,  16G. 

Threshers,  7. 

Thrips.  168. 

Thurl.  273.  276.  278. 

Tillage  and  water  eapaelly.  S4,  63. 

Tillage  ileflned.  tW.  ?.>. 

Tillage  of  the  soil.  64.  159. 

Timber.  2.  3.  109. 

Timothy  for  ueAdowa.  IM.  189.  IIW 

Timothy,  piclurv  of.  IK,  196. 

Tuad«lools.  IT.i. 

Tobacco  anil 

Tobacco  Inii 

Tomatooa.  106. 


336 


INDEX 


Tools,  66,  69,  71,  74,  75,  76,  158, 
Toxins,  224,  236.  [160,  162,  171. 
Traiuing,  163. 

Transpiration,  114,  120,  125. 
Transportation,  11,  15. 
Transportation  of  soils,  22. 
Tricalcic  phosphate,  94. 
Trifolium   hybridum,   incarnatum, 
medium,  pratense,    repens,   193, 
Trimming,  163.  [194. 

Tropical  plants,  119. 
Trypsin,  221. 
Tull,  .Jethro,  44,  72. 
Turgidity,  113,  127. 
Turkeys,  3,  201. 

fjdder,  273,  276. 
Underdrainage,  40,  53,  60. 

Valleys,  16. 

Vegetables,  3,  11,  109. 

Ventilation,  228,  269. 

Viability,  1.33. 

Vilmorin,  quoted,  14. 

Villus,  222,  2.35,  236. 

Vineyards  and  rose-bugs,  175. 

Vitality  of  seeds,  133. 

Vitriol,  oil  of,  92,  94.  [206. 

Voorhees,  referred  to,  84,  86,  105 


Waste  in  animals,  228,  229. 
Water,  amount  soil  will  hold,  47, 
Water,  driving  off  by  heat,  29. 
Water  for  stock,  271. 
Water  in  foods,  243. 
Water  in  the  plant,  113,  114. 
Water-lily,  19. 
Water  moves  lands,  23. 
Water  plants,  19. 
Water-sprouts,  165. 


59. 


Water-table,  40,  46. 

Water  used  by  plants,  63,  74. 

Weather,  9,  10. 

Weathering,  16,  30. 

Weeds,  69,  70,  76,  81,  159,  100,  17C 

Weeds  and  stock,  205.  [179 

Weeds,  kinds,  15. 

Weevils,  175. 

Weight  of  water  on  acre,  63. 

Wells,  48. 

Wheat,  1,  4,  26,  108,  198. 

Wheat  and  mullein,  36. 

Wheat  and  pastures,  181. 

Wheat,  germination,  124,  136. 

Wheat,  propagation,  132. 

Wheat,  seed-bed  for,  148,  152,  155, 

Wheat,  tilling,  IGO.  [158. 

Wheeler,  referred  to,  45. 

White  hellebore,  169. 

Willow,  31,  146. 

Windbreaks,  107,  111. 

Windmills,  7. 

Winds  and  soils,  24. 

Wine,  11,  109. 

Wing,  H.  H.,  chapter  by,  240. 

Wing,  H.  H.,  referred  to,  278. 

Wisconsin,  University  of,  13,  277- 

Withers,  273,  276. 

Wolves,  212. 

Wood  or  timber,  2,  3. 

Wood  products,  109. 

Wool,  1. 

Wool-waste,  204. 

Work  of  animals,  228. 

Worms,  166, 169. 

Worn-out  lands,  21. 

Wounds,  healing,  163,  164. 

Zoology,  8. 


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Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmstead $1  50 

T.  F.  Hunt's  How  to  Choose  a  Farm 1  75 

E.  G.  Cheyney  and  J.  P.  Wentling's  The  Farm  Woodlot 1  75 

C.  V.  Piper  and  R.  A.  Oakley's  Turf  for  Golf  Courses 2  50 

ON  TILLAGE,  ETC. 

F.  H.  King's  The  Soil 1  50 

Isaac  P.  Roberts'  The  Fertility  of  the  Land 1  50 

F.  H.  Ivjng's  Irrigation  and  Drainage 1  60 

Edward  B.  Voorhees'  Fertilizers.     New  Edition 1  50 

Edward  B.  Voohees'  Forage  Crops 1  50 

J.  A.  Widtsoe's  Dry  Farming 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Agriculture 1  25 

ON  PLANT  DISEASES.  ETC. 

E.  G.  Lodeman's  The  Spraying  of  Plants 1  50 

ON  GARDEN-MAKING 

D.  Lumsden's  Greenhouse  Construction  and  Heating Preparing 

A.  W.  Gilbert's  The  Potato 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Garden-Making 1  60 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Vegetable-Gardening 1  60 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Forcing-Book 1   25 

L.  H.  Bailey  and  A.  W.  Gilbert's  Plant  Breeding.     New  Edition    ...  2  GO 

P.  H.  Rolf's  Subtropical  Vegetable-Gardening 1  50 

ON  FRUIT-GROWING,  ETC. 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Nursery-Book 1  50 

L.  H.  Bailey's  Principles  of  Fruit-Growing.     New  Edition 1  75 

F.  W.  Card's  Bush-Fruits 1  50 

W.  Paddock  &  O.  B.  Whipple's  Fruit-Growing  in  Arid  Regions  ....  1   50 

J.  E.  Coit's  Citrus  Fruits 2  GO 

S.  W.  Fletcher's  The  Strawberry  in  North  America Preparing 

S.  W.  Fletcher's  Strawberry-Growing 1  75 

ON  THE  CARE  OF  LIVE-STOCK 

Nelson  S.  Mayo's  The  Diseases  of  Animals 1  75 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Horse 1  35 

M.  W.  Harper's  Breaking  and  Training  of  Horses 2  00 

George  C.  Watson's  Farm  Poultry.     New  Edition 1  50 

John  A.  Craig's  Sheep  Farming 1  50 

E.  F.  Phillips'  Beekeeping 2  00 

E.   L.   Potter,  G.   A.    Samson,   O.    M.    Nelson  and  C.    N.   Kennedy's 

Western  Livestock  Management Preparing 

ON  DAIRY  ■WORK,  FARM  CHEMISTRY,  ETC. 

Henry  H.  Wing's  Milk  and  Its  Products.     New  Edition 1  50 

.J.  G.  Lipman's  Bacteria  in  Relation  to  Country  Life 1  50 

ON  ECONOMICS  AND  ORGANIZATION 

William  .\.  McKeever's  Farm  Boys  and  Girls 1  75 

I.  P.  Roberts'  The  Farmer's  Business  Handbook 1  25 

George  T.  Fairchild's  Rural  Wealth  and  Welfare 1  50 

H.  N.  Ogden's  Rural  Hygiene 1  50 

J.  Green's  Law  for  the  American  Farmer 1  50 

G.  H.  Powell's  Cooperation  in  Agriculture 1  50 

J.  B.  Morman's  Principles  of  Rural  Credits 1  50 

Glenn  W.  Herrick's  Insects  Injurious  to  the  Household 1  75 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  64-66  Fifth  Avenue  NEW  YORK 


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